Non-ionizing radiation protection : summary of research and policy options

591 Pages·2017·11.405 MB·English

by  Karipidis, Ken, Wood, Andrew W

Non-ionizing Radiation Protection
Non-ionizing Radiation Protection
Summary of Research and Policy Options
Edited by
Andrew W. Wood PhD
Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia
Ken Karipidis PhD
Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency, Melbourne,
Australia
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
v
Contents
List of Contributors xxiii
Foreword xxvii
Acknowledgments xxix
Introduction xxxi
1 Overview: The Electromagnetic Spectrum and Nonionizing
Radiation 1
Andrew Wood and Colin Roy
1.1 What Is Nonionizing Radiation (NIR)? 1
1.2 Types of NIR 5
1.3 How Dangerous is NIR? 6
1.4 Overview Summary of NIR Health Effects Evaluation: Status 8
Tutorial Problems 9
References 9
Part I Hazard Identification and Assessment: What are the Dangers
and How are the Sources Dangerous? 11
2 Hazard Identification: Laboratory Investigation 13
Andrew Wood
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 The Scientific Method 13
2.3 Human Volunteer Experiments 14
2.4 Whole Organism Experiments 16
2.5 Studies on Isolated Cells, Organs, or Subcellular Organelles 18
2.6 Sources of Artifact and Importance of Independent Replication
and Quality Control 19
2.7 Difference Between “Effects” and “Harmful Effects”: Extrapolation
to Human Health Outcomes 20
2.8 Role of Mathematical Modeling and Mechanism Studies 21
Appendix: Statistical Concepts 21
vi Contents
A.1 Averaging 21
A.2 Standard Error of the Mean 22
A.3 When Is a Difference Significant? 22
A.4 Correlations 23
A.5 Analysis of Variance 23
A.6 Statistical Power 24
A.7 Multiple Comparisons 24
Tutorial Problems 24
References 25
3 Hazard Identification: Epidemiological Studies and Their
Interpretation 26
Mark Elwood
3.1 Introduction 26
3.2 Causation 26
3.3 Incidence and Prevalence 27
3.4 Evidence for Causation 27
3.5 Types of Epidemiological Study 29
3.5.1 Intervention Trials 29
3.5.2 Analytical Studies: Cohort Studies 29
3.5.3 Case–Control Studies 31
3.5.4 Surveys 34
3.6 Time Dimensions – Prospective, Retrospective, or Cross
Sectional 34
3.7 Some Other Epidemiological Studies 35
3.7.1 Ecological Studies 35
3.7.2 Clusters of Disease 35
3.8 The Results of Epidemiological Studies: Relative Risk, Confidence
Limits, and P-Values 36
3.9 Assessing Causality: Identifying Noncausal Explanations 37
3.9.1 Confounding 38
3.9.2 Positive Indicators of Causality: The Bradford‐Hill Indicators 40
3.9.3 Meta‐Analysis 42
3.9.4 Assessing if No Association Exists 43
3.10 Conclusion 43
Tutorial Problems 44
References 44
Part II Ultraviolet (UV) Light 47
4 UVR and Short-Term Hazards to the Skin and Eyes 49
Colin Roy and Peter Gies
4.1 Introduction 49
4.1.1 UV A, B, and C 49
Contents vii
4.1.2 Action Spectra 49
4.2 Sources of UVR: Natural and Artificial 51
4.2.1 Solar UVR and Latitude 51
4.2.1.1 Factors Affecting Solar UVR 52
4.2.1.2 Solar Elevation 53
4.2.1.3 Diffuse and Direct UVR 55
4.2.1.4 Effect of Ozone on UVR 55
4.2.1.5 Effects Due to Clouds 56
4.2.1.6 Altitude 56
4.2.1.7 Typical Levels of Solar UVR and Effects of Latitude 56
4.2.2 Artificial Sources of UVR 56
4.2.2.1 Lamps 57
4.2.2.1.1 Incandescent Filament Lamps 57
4.2.2.1.2 Low-Pressure Discharge Lamps 58
4.2.2.1.3 Fluorescent Lamps 58
4.2.2.1.4 High-Intensity Discharge (HID) Lamps 59
4.2.2.1.5 Short Arc Lamps 59
4.2.2.1.6 Carbon Arcs 59
4.2.2.2 Welding Arcs 59
4.2.3 Medical Exposures 60
4.2.4 Relative Exposure 60
4.3 Short-Term Hazards to Skin and Eyes 60
4.4 UVR Interaction with Biomolecules 62
4.4.1 Photosensitization 63
4.4.2 Psoralen Photochemotherapy (PUVA Therapy) 63
4.5 Eye Transmission and Effects 63
References 64
Further Reading 66
5 Ultraviolet: Long-Term Risks and Benefits 67
Mark Elwood
5.1 Hazards: General 67
5.1.1 Hazards: Skin Cancers 67
5.1.2 Hazards: Effects on the Eyes 71
5.2 Benefits: Vitamin D Synthesis 71
5.3 Reduction in Sun Exposure 72
5.4 Control of Artificial Tanning 73
Tutorial Problems 74
References 74
6 UV Guidelines and Protection Policies 76
Peter Gies and Colin Roy
6.1 ICNIRP Guidelines and National Standards 76
6.2 General Population versus Occupational Exposures 78
6.3 Occupational Exposures to UVR 79
viii Contents
6.4 Measured Occupational Exposures to UVR 81
6.5 Awareness Campaigns 82
6.6 Protection Measures 83
6.6.1 Sunscreens and SPF 83
6.6.2 Broad Spectrum Protection 84
6.6.3 Sun‐Protective Clothing 84
6.6.4 Sunglasses and Their Effectiveness 85
6.6.5 Solaria Around the World 87
6.6.6 Solaria in Australia 88
References 90
Further Reading 93
7 UV Measurements 94
Peter Gies and Colin Roy
7.1 Radiometry and Spectroradiometry 94
7.1.1 Band Radiometry 97
7.1.2 UVR Measurements 98
7.2 Solar UVR 99
7.3 Solar UVR Broadband Measurements 100
7.4 Solar UVR Spectral Measurements 101
7.4.1 Europe 101
7.4.2 North America 101
7.4.3 South America 101
7.4.4 New Zealand 102
7.4.5 Australia 102
7.4.6 South Africa 102
7.5 Personal Dosimetry 103
7.5.1 Film Dosimeters 103
7.5.2 Electronic Dosimeters 104
7.6 Chemical Dosimeters 106
7.7 Biological Dosimeters 107
References 107
Further Reading 109
Part III Visible and Infrared (IR) Light 111
8 Laser and Visible Radiation Hazards to the Eye and Skin 113
Claire Lyngå and David Urban
8.1 Intense Sources of Optical Radiation 113
8.1.1 Solar Radiation 114
8.1.2 Laser Radiation 114
8.1.3 High‐Power Light‐Emitting Diodes 114
8.1.4 Intense Pulsed Light Sources 114
8.2 Basic Principles of a Laser 116
Contents ix
8.2.1 Properties of Laser Light 116
8.2.2 Understanding the Laser 116
8.2.3 Different Types of Lasers 119
8.2.3.1 Pulsed versus Continuous Lasers 119
8.2.3.2 Common Laser Types and Their Uses 120
8.3 Intense Nonlaser Sources of Visible Light 122
8.3.1 Light‐Emitting Diodes 122
8.3.2 Intense Pulse Light Sources 122
8.3.3 Solar Radiation 123
8.4 Biological Effects 124
8.4.1 Anatomy of the Eye 124
8.4.2 Hazards to the Eye 125
8.4.2.1 Infrared Wavelengths and Eyesafe Lasers 128
8.4.2.2 Aversion Response and Eye Movements 128
8.4.3 Hazards to the Skin 128
8.5 Laser Radiation Safety 129
8.5.1 Intrabeam Viewing 129
8.5.2 Maximal Permissible Exposure 129
8.5.3 Nominal Ocular Hazard Distance 130
8.5.4 Laser Hazard Classification 130
Tutorial Problems 132
References 132
9 Infrared Radiation and Biological Hazards 134
Stephen Newbery
9.1 Introduction 134
9.2 Black Body Radiation 134
9.3 Absorption of Infrared Radiation 136
9.3.1 Absorption by Water 136
9.4 Interaction of Infrared Radiation with the Human Body 138
9.4.1 Skin 138
9.4.2 Eye 139
9.5 Traditional Sources of Infrared Radiation 140
9.5.1 Hazards from “Traditional Sources of Infrared Radiation” 140
9.6 Personal Protective Equipment 141
9.7 Recent and Emerging Infrared Technologies, Including Lasers,
Laser Diodes, LEDs, and Terahertz Devices 141
9.8 Infrared Exposure Standards and Guidelines 142
References 143
10 Laser and Optical Radiation Guidelines 145
David Urban and John Javorniczky
10.1 Introduction 145
10.2 Guidelines and Standards for Lasers 146
x Contents
10.3 Laser Standards 146
10.3.1 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) 146
10.3.2 American National Standards Institute (ANSI) 147
10.4 Laser Guidelines 147
10.4.1 International Commission on Non‐ionizing Protection
(ICNIRP) 147
10.4.2 Inconsistencies in Laser Classification 148
10.4.3 Other Optical Radiation Guidelines 148
10.4.4 List of Laser and Optical Radiation Guidelines 150
References 151
11 Laser Measurements 152
David Urban and John Javorniczky
11.1 Introduction 152
11.2 Measurement Parameters for Lasers 153
11.3 Measurement Methods 154
11.3.1 Radiant Power and Radiant Energy 154
11.3.2 Pyroelectric Sensors 154
11.3.3 Thermopile Sensors 156
11.3.4 Semiconductor Photodiodes/Optical Sensors 157
11.3.5 Meters 158
11.4 Beam Diameter and Beam Divergence 158
11.4.1 Full‐Width at Half Maximum (FWHM)
Measurement 159
11.4.2 1/e2 Measurement 159
11.4.3 Knife‐Edge Measurement 159
11.4.4 Second Moment or D4σ Measurement 160
11.5 Divergence Measurements 160
11.5.1 Beam Diameter at Distance 160
11.5.2 Divergence at Focal Length Measurement 161
Tutorial Problems 162
References 162
Further Reading 162
Part IV Radiofrequency (RF) and Microwave Radiation 163
12 Thermal Effects of Microwave and Radiofrequency Radiation 165
Kenneth R. Foster
12.1 Introduction 165
12.2 Thermal Effects Relevant to Health and Safety 167
12.2.1 Perception and Pain 168
12.2.2 Burns 169
12.2.3 Cataracts 170
Contents xi
12.2.4 Adverse Reproductive Effects 171
12.2.5 Behavioral Disruption 172
12.2.6 Thermal Death 173
12.3 Mechanisms for Thermal Effects of RF Energy 173
12.3.1 Mechanisms Related to Temperature Increase 173
12.3.2 Temperature Dependence of Biochemical
Reactions 174
12.3.3 Thermal Damage to Tissue 175
12.3.4 Thermophysiological Effects of Exposure to RF 176
12.3.5 Modulation Dependent Thermal Effects 177
12.4 Modeling Thermal Response of Humans to RF Energy
Exposure 178
12.4.1 Thermal Models for Bioheat Transfer 178
12.4.2 Models for Thermophysiological Responses of Humans to RF
Energy Absorption 181
12.5 Conclusion 181
References 182
13 RF Guidelines and Standards 186
Andrew Wood
13.1 Introduction 186
13.2 How Do the Standards-Setting Bodies Operate? 187
13.3 Standard or Guidance Levels 188
13.4 Basic Restrictions 189
13.5 Temporal Averaging 191
13.6 Contact Current Restrictions 193
13.7 Reference Levels as a Function of Frequency 194
13.8 Near-Field versus Far-Field 195
13.9 Dealing with Multiple Frequencies 197
13.10 Spatial Averaging 198
13.11 Specific Issues Regarding Risk Management 198
13.12 Scientific Input 199
13.13 The Place of Epidemiological and Low-Level Effects Research
in Standard Setting 199
Tutorial Problems 203
References 203
14 Assessing RF Exposure: Fields, Currents, and SAR 205
Steve Iskra, Robert L. McIntosh and Andrew Wood
14.1 Introduction 205
14.2 RF Sources and the Environment 205
14.3 Planning an Exposure Assessment 206
14.4 Quantities and Units 208
14.5 Broadband Field Strength Measurements 209