Non Human Primates

244 Pages·2001·1.9 MB·English

by  Wildlife Institute of India

Na1.flu•an
Pri•aatfIe nsd ia
The Environment Information System (ENVIS) Centre
at the Wildlife Institute of India, set up in September
1997, is part of the ENVIS set-up of the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, Government of India. It
deals with general matters concerning ‘wildlife’ and
specifically those related to ‘protected areas’. Its
objectives are to:
* Establish a data bank on information related to
wildlife and wildlife protected areas, and thereby
build up a repository and dissemination centre for
information on wildlife science;
* Promote national and international cooperation,
and exchange of wildlife related information;
* Provide decision makers at the apex level with
information related to conservation and development.
Envis Centre
Wildlife & Protected Areas
Project Leader
S.K. Mukherjee
Project Coordinator
V.B. Mathur
Project Co-coordinator
S.A. Hussain
Project Associate
N.M. Ishwar
Advisory Committee
P.K. Mathur
B.C. Choudhury
Ravi Chellam
Y.V. Bhatnagar
Rajesh Thapa
Wildlife Institute of India
Post Box # 18, Chandrabani, Dehradun 248 001
Tel: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
Email: [email protected]
URL—http://www.wii.gov.in
Envis Bulletin
Wildlife and Protected Areas
vol. 1, no. 1, December 2001
Non-Human Primates of India
Editor
A.K. Gupta
Editorial Support
N.M. Ishwar
Word Processing
G.C. Patial
Design & Layout
Virendra Sharma
Maps
D.S. Pundir
G.M. Veerapan
Ajay Nautiyal
Acknowledgements
GIS & Computer Centre,
Library & Documentation Centre,
of the Wildlife Institute of India
The contents of the bulletin may be freely
used for non-commercial purposes, with
acknowledgement.
Citation (e.g.): Sinha, A. (2001) The
Bonnet Macaque Revisited: Ecology,
Demography and Behaviour. In ENVIS
Bulletin: Wildlife & Protected Areas,
Non-Human Primates of India, A.K.
Gupta (editor), vol. 1, no. 1, 32–41.
Envis Bulletin: is also available on
the internet at WII website:
www.wii.gov.in
Contents
Director’s Note vii
Introduction
1 Non-Human Primates of India: An Introduction 1
A.K. Gupta
Species Profile
1 The Bonnet Macaque Revisited: Ecology, 30
Demography, and Behaviour
Anindya Sinha
2 The Lion-Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus): 40
Life History, Ecology, Distribution and Conservation
Ajith Kumar
3 Ecology and Conservation of Nilgiri 49
Langur (Trachypithecus johnii)
S.F. Wesley Sunderraj
4 Hoolock Gibbon (Bunopithecus hoolock) 60
J.P. Sati & J.R.B. Alfred
5 Indian Rhesus Macaque: Habitat, Ecology and 68
Activity Patterns of Naturally Occurring Populations
P.K. Seth, P.K. Chopra & S. Seth
Status Reports
1 Status, Conservation and Management of 81
Primates in India
Charles H. Southwick & M.F. Siddiqi
2 Primates in Northeast India: An Overview of their 92
Distribution and Conservation Status
Anwaruddin Choudhury
3 Distribution, Conservation Status and Priorities 102
for Primates in Northeast India
A. Srivastava & S.M. Mohnot
4 Status of Primates in Andhra Pradesh 109
C. Srinivasulu & V.Nagulu
5 Status and Distribution of Primates 113
in Arunachal Pradesh
D.N. Singh
6 Primates of the Amarkantak Forests, 120
Madhya Pradesh
R.J. Rao & Abhishek Bhatnagar
7 Status of Primates in Orissa 124
L.N. Acharjyo
8 Status of Primates in Tripura 127
A.K. Gupta
9 Status and Conservation of Non-Human 136
Primates in India
R.P. Mukherjee
Ex-Situ Initiatives in Conservation
1 Problems of Prioritizing Primate Species for 138
Captive Breeding in Indian Zoos
Sally Walker & Sanjay Molur
2 Status of Captive Primates in Indian Zoos 152
P.R. Sinha & Bipul Chakraborty
3 Conservation Assessment and Management 165
Plan Workshop for South Asian Primates —
Red Listing at the Regional Level
Sally Walker & Sanjay Molur
Primate–Human Interface
1 Monkey Menace—Who is Responsible? 169
Iqbal Malik
2 Monkeys in and around Jaipur: A Profile 172
P.S. Bhatnagar & R. Mathur
Trade in Primates
1 Illegal Trade and Utilization of Primates in India 177
Abrar Ahmed
2 Traditional Trapping Techniques of Primates in India 185
Rajat Bhargava
Selected Bibliography on Indian Primates 189
D.P. Rath
List of Contributors 232
Mailbag 234
Directors Note
A.K. Gupta
This issue of ENVIS deals with non-human With 63 genera and 620 species/subspe-
primates that belong to the highest mamma- cies, non-human primates are represented
lian order—Primates. Evolutionarily, biologi- in about 92 countries, Brazil topping the list
cally, and culturally, non-human primates are with 77 species. A total of 21 species are
the closest relatives of humans. A shared recorded from the Indian subcontinent
ancestry with humans is responsible for including Sri Lanka. India with 15 species
many common characteristics in non-human is notable more for their abundance,
primates—tool use, long-lasting social rela- commensalism, and diversity of habitat
tionships, physiological characteristics, etc. across the length and breadth of the coun-
The association between human and non- try. None of the wildlife species is as indica-
human primates has been close and intricate, tive of the two ‘hot-spots’ in India as non-
more so in the Indian subcontinent due to human primates are with their concentra-
the emotional and poignant coalescing of tion and endemic status in and around the
non-human primates with Hindu mythology. Northeastern Himalayas and the Western
The study of non-human primates has also Ghats.
contributed to the understanding of basic
biological phenomena, human diseases, Compared to their very vital and important
social behaviour, and life-styles of human roles in sustaining the biodiversity rich trop-
societies. Non-human primates, comprising ical and sub-tropical habitat of the country,
monkeys, langurs, apes, lemurs, and loris, non-human primates have received very lit-
etc. inhabit most part of the biodiversity rich, tle or no attention from researchers, conser-
4 major biogeographical tropical and sub- vationists, and planners. The recent spurt
tropical regions of the world. They perform in man–monkey conflict cases, involving a
ecological services such as seed dispersers, few commensal primate species, has add-
pollinators, primary consumers, and as food ed further to their tribulations. The conserva-
for top predators. They are, therefore, good tion threat, which was hitherto limited only
indicators of the general health of the eco- to those non-human primate species that
system and are helpful in conservation were fast losing their wild habitat, has now
planning. swathed even these commensal species.
Envis Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas (2001) 1(1), vii–viii
The age-old cultural and religious fervour primate species, and continues to conduct
to protect the ‘Hindu god’ is quickly giving such studies as regular annual research
way to hostility and antipathy. activities. This ENVIS issue on ‘Non-Human
Primates of India’ is yet another landmark
Although 9 out of 15 non-human primate
attempt in furthering the cause and concerns
species are included in Schedule I(1), and
of this fascinating group of animals, whose
the remaining 6 in Schedule II(II) of the
study is directly linked with the welfare of the
Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act, 1991,
human society. Further, conservation of a
yet, there seems to be no let-up in their
natural ecosystem at a landscape level
conservation threat perception. The colossal
should be considered for reducing the man–
information gap and dearth of proper
monkey conflict.
database on taxonomy, ecology, behaviour,
and conservation issues for most of the non- The next issue of ENVIS will be dedicated
human primate species in India is the main to ‘Mountain Ungulates’ to commemorate
reason why authorities have not been able the ‘YEAR OF THE MOUNTAIN—2002’.
to take proper conservation measures. The
Wildlife Institute of India has been a pioneer S. K. Mukherjee
Director, WII and Team Leader,
in initiating detailed in situ and ex situ
ENVIS Centre
studies on some of the highly endangered Wildlife Institute of India
viii
Mailbag This directory has fulfilled a long standing Congratulations on this contribution to
demand by wildlifers and environmentalists. facilitating communication related to India’s
protected areas. At a first glance, we thought
Shri I.S. Negi, Honorary Secretary,
you had neglected to include the names of the
Wildlife Preservation Society of India,
managers, but then reading your introduction,
7, Astley Hall, Dehradun
realized why you have not included the names
in the printed version. We have not tried to look
Congratulations on a most useful Bulletin—
up the bulletin on your website yet, but think
such a directory was surely needed.
that your attempt to keep the names current in
Mr Ashish Kothari, Kalpavriksh, Apartment the electronic version is a noble attempt.
5, Shree Dutta Krupa, 908, Deccan Mr Dave Ferguson, Fred Bagley, Jarl
Gymkhana, Pune 411 004 Stromayer, Kimberly McClurg,
Division of International Conservation, US
This is a most useful compendium of Fish & Wildlife Service
information on Wildlife Protected Areas in
India. It is well documented, excellent, I just wanted to say that the recent production
informative and provides valuable information from WII’s ENVIS programme is extremely
on the present scenario and is useful to impressive. The Directory of PA Managers is
researchers, reference libraries, the media one of the most useful compilations that I have
and educational institutions. seen of late. Congratulations and keep up the
good work.
Prof. Dr S.P. Bhatnagar, Wildlife
Shri Vivek Menon, Executive Director,
Conservation Society of India, A-51,
Wildlife Trust of India, C-644,
Mansarovar Colony, Vaishali Nagar,
Second Floor, New Friends Colony,
Ajmer 305 001 (Rajasthan).
New Delhi 110 065
This is indeed a very useful directory and will
This issue is updated, excellent, informative
be of immense help to students, research
and provides valuable information of contact
scholars, faculty of wildlife departments and
(cid:226)(cid:230)(cid:218)U»(cid:231)(cid:214)(cid:252)(cid:204), (cid:226)ØS´c¯U, (cid:213)ªØU-'U´(cid:216)(cid:244)»Ł, addresses of the network of National Parks
managers of protected areas. I extend my
and Wildlife Sanctuaries of India. The State-
(cid:204)(cid:137)(cid:216)´(cid:218)U„, 'U(cid:136)•º⁄c¯U (cid:176)(cid:223)¢ (cid:152)(cid:230)Ø(cid:231)¯U(cid:218)U(cid:231)ªU(cid:204) congratulations to all concerned in bringing out wise information on wildlife protected areas in
such an useful compilation. I hope the WII will
(cid:213)Ø(cid:220)(cid:240)(cid:231)¯U(cid:217) (cid:215)Ø…(cid:253)(cid:135)(cid:230) •(cid:240)⁄ (cid:231)(cid:220)(cid:176) ¥(cid:230)´ India, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests,
continue publishing books/manuals on relevant
Chief Wildlife Wardens and Project Tiger
(cid:226)(cid:230)ˇØ(cid:223)(cid:230)˛ •(cid:240)⁄ ´(cid:230)(cid:152)(cid:230) ªæ·U— topics of wildlife studies and conservation in
Reserves is also highly appreciable. The maps
(cid:226)(cid:215)S(cid:204) `Ł(cid:223)-`(cid:139)(cid:204)Ø, ´(cid:230)˛(cid:247)´ `»(cid:204)(cid:247) the country. are also an added asset for understanding the
•⁄(cid:230) (cid:226)(cid:240)(cid:223)(cid:230)(cid:214)(cid:230)(cid:223) (cid:226)(cid:240) (cid:226)º(cid:231)`(cid:204) (cid:213)Ø(cid:220)(cid:240)(cid:231)¯U(cid:217) Prof. H.S.A. Yahya, Chairman, Department actual locations of the existing National Parks
of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim and Wildlife Sanctuaries. Your decision to
(cid:231)(cid:217)(cid:209)(cid:226)(cid:139)˛(cid:240)ªU (cid:226)¢»(cid:253)ªU(cid:135)(cid:230)Ł(cid:216), ´˘U(cid:217)Ł(cid:216), University, Aligarh 202 002. compile, collate and publish such a high value
'U¸(cid:220)(cid:240)„(cid:217)Ł(cid:216) ªæU— material is really commendable. I am sure, with
My heartiest congratulations to you all for the dedicated team of workers you have, the
(cid:217)(cid:223)(cid:220) ˙U(cid:230)»(cid:230) bringing out the Directory of Wildlife Protected data collected by you for bringing out this
•º⁄(cid:231)Æ ˆ(cid:216)(cid:223)S˝(cid:230) Areas in India. It brings together in one place valuable publication will become a standard
the status of these areas. This is a publication, reference for its users.
x{{, `ıªU(cid:218)UŁ (cid:213)(cid:230)`(cid:230)(cid:218)U,
which should be available practically with every Shri A.P. Dorlikar, 20, Surve Layout,
`(cid:216)´Ø(cid:218)U(cid:151)x Deputy Conservator of Forests and other Behind Sanjuba High School,
senior officers. I quite understand the PO: Ayodhyanagar,
limitations, nevertheless you may please think Nagpur 440 024
on these lines and maybe make it available to
all the officers, if need be as a priced document. The current Directory of Wildlife Protected Area
Managers is a completely different kind of a
Dr S.N. Rai, PCCF (Working Plan & book. This Directory is a most impressive and
Research), Aranya Bhavan, 18th Cross, useful volume. First of all, although it contains
Malleswaram, Bangalore 560 003 much information, it is a ‘handy’ size (half A4
or 8 x 5.5). It is also very attractively typeset
I would like to congratulate all those who have with black side borders containing the names
put in hard work in collecting the desired of the states so that it is very easy to find the
information from far and wide. This is the first information you want. There are maps of each
directory of Wildlife Protected Area Managers state with the location of each NP and PA
and will be of immense help to all those who clearly marked on them. One hopes the
are interested in Wildlife Conservation. I managers will provide WII with the information
congratulate each and everyone associated of their postings so that the internet version is
with the publication of such a comprehensive kept up-to-date. This is a most useful service.
and informative bulletin.
Sally Walker
Mr C.L. Bhatia, IFS, Director Zoo Outreach Organization,
General of Forests & Special Secretary to 79 Bharati Colony,
Extract of letters in
the Govt. of India (Retd.), 143, Uday Park, Peelamedu, Coimbatore,
response to vol.2, no.2 New Delhi 110 049 Tamil Nadu 641 004 India
NON-HUMAN PRIMATES OF INDIA : An Introduction
Non-Human Primates of India:
An Introduction
A.K. Gupta
Classified under the same Natural Order as no evidence record of primates (Roonwal &
man, non-human primates, which include apes, Mohnot, 1977). The first living members of the
monkeys, lemurs and langurs, have always order of primate date back to approximately
excited man’s interest. They are one of the 55 million years ago (mya) at the beginning of
most fascinating groups of animals. Vocal, the Eocene Epoch. They were more similar
group living, and diurnal, primates are easily to the extant prosimians—the tarsiers of
seen in a forest which makes them more Southeast Asia and the strepsirrhine primates
popular than other mammals. The study of (lemurs and lorises) of Madagascar, Africa
non-human primates has a close bearing and Asia, in many adaptive features and
on the understanding of human, social and phylogenetic affinities. Eocene primates were
psychological problems. Their study is also small, with most species less than 1 kg in
important in the field of medicine (human and estimated mass, and only a few as large as
veterinary) and agriculture (protecting crops 5 kg. They included diurnal and nocturnal,
from primate pests). Biologically, primates largely insectivorous and frugivorous, as
provide an understanding of the morphological, well as quadrupedal and leaping varieties.
physiological, and even behavioural aspects Anthropoid primates first appeared in Northern
of human evolution, especially of early man Africa and Asia in the early part of the Oligocene
before the advent of agriculture (Roonwal Epoch (35 mya). They were comparatively
& Mohnot, 1977). Primates are also good larger in size and showed a diversity of dietary
indicators of the health of an ecosystem, a and locomotor adaptations. They were mostly
property that can be used for the appropriate frugivorous and seed eating, few if any were
conservation planning of the given ecosystem. folivores, and all were arboreal and leapers.
Fossil platyrrhines in South America, hominoids
Origin and Evolution of Primates
(apes), and Old World monkeys in Africa first
(Adapted from Fleagle & Reed, 1999)
appeared in the beginning of the Miocene (23
Primates constitute the highest order of mya) Epoch. The end of the Miocene and the
mammals from the evolutionary point of view. beginning of the Pliocene Epoch (5 mya) is
Fossils of primates have been found in Europe marked by the major radiation of Old World
and North America. Australia, the adjacent monkeys in Africa and Eurasia. In Asia, tarsiers,
islands of New Guinea and the islands of lorises and anthropoids have been distinct from
Oceania in the Pacific are the only places with one another for 50 million years or more. The
1
Envis Bulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas (2001) 1(1), 1–29
divergence between apes and monkeys took many changes in the taxonomy of primates,
place approximately for 25 mya, and between the latest being Groves (2001). Still, some more
colobines and cercopithecines for about 15 changes are in the offing, especially concerning
mya. The lesser apes diverged from orangutans the taxonomy of the Asian primates (refer to
more recently (18 mya) and siamangs diverged the Sally & Molur paper, in this volume).
from gibbons for about 10 mya. The different
The genus Lemur consisted of the Ring-tailed
genera of leaf monkeys have been separate
lemur, Lemur catta, from Madagascar, and
for a lesser time compared to macaques
the Slender loris from Sri Lanka. In the present
(Figure 1).
scheme of classification, they are now
recognized in the sub-order Prosimii (Pre-or
early-monkeys) as Lemuriformes (lemur) and
Lorisiformes (loris). The Prosimii has 4
families, that are generally distinguished by
then long noses terminating in a naked moist
snout or rhinarium, and muzzle and brows with
prominent whiskers (Napier & Napier, 1985).
They are mostly nocturnal and arboreal. As
an adaptation to a nocturnal life style, their
eyes are set slightly sideways and they have
a highly developed sense of smell and hearing.
The Lemuriformes are exclusively from
Madagascar and have 3 families: Lemuroidae
Figure 1. A geological time chart showing major
events in primate evolution and the distribution of (true lemurs and dwarf lemurs), Indriidae (indri,
fossil primates throughout time and space (Fleagle, propithecus, and avahi), and Daubentoidae
1989).
(aye- aye). The Lorisiformes inhabit Africa and
Primates are best identified by a combination Asia and have only one family: Lorisidae (loris,
of characters rather than by one or more unique pottos and galagos).
or exclusive ones. Having evolved from ar-
The genus Simia includes both apes and
boreal ancestors in general, they retain these
monkeys. ‘Ape’ refers to both the great apes
characteristics; a few species have, second-
(chimpanzee, gorilla, and orangutan) and the
arily returned to terrestrial habitat (Roonwal
lesser apes (gibbon and siamang), that have
& Mohnot, 1977).
long arms, broad chests, and no tail. Monkeys
from the Old World (Africa and Asia) and the
Taxonomy of Primates
New World (South & Central America) have
Linnaeus listed primates as the first order of short (macaques) and long (langurs) tails. In
mammals and recognized four genera: Homo the present form of classification, the sub-
(man), Simia (monkeys and apes), Lemur order Anthropidea (man-like forms) includes
(lemurs and lorises), and Vespertilo (bats). both the Homo and Simia genera of Linnaeus.
However, bats were later removed from the The sub-order Anthropoidea has 6 families.
primates order (Mivart, 1873). After this first Anthropoids are characterized by short faces,
attempt to classify primates, there have been dry noses, and lacking in prominent whiskers.
2