Non-domesticated food resources in the marketplace and marketing system of northeastern Thailand

19 Pages·1996·10.6 MB·English

by  Geraldine Moreno-Black

Journal Ethnobiology 16(1):99-117 Summer
of 1996
NON-DOMESTICATED FOOD
RESOURCES THE
IN
AND
MARKETPLACE MARKETING
SYSTEM
OF NORTHEASTERN THAILAND
GERALDINE MORENO-BLACK
Department Anthropology
of
Oregon
University
of
Eugene, Oregon 97403
W
AKANAN
ATANA
RR
Box 4193
2
HI
96778-9803
Pahoa,
SOMNASANG
PRAPIMPORN
Department Anthropology
of
Oregon
University
of
Oregon 974043
Eugene,
THAMATHAWAN
SOMPONG
School of Biology, Institute of Science
Suranaree University Technology
of
Nakornajasima, Thailand
PAUL BROZVOSKY
and Planning Analysis
Research
Institutional
&
University
Virginia Polytechnic Institute State
Blacksburg, Virginia
ABSTRACT an
These
northeastern Thailand.
ty
markets and becoming a part of the commercial exchange system.
in the local
morning markets region were surveyed throughout the year in order
Early in this
non-domesticated food
document prevalence and seasonal variation of
the
to: 1)
important
which non-domesticated food resources are
determine
resources;
2)
income people; and identify factors that impact the
sources of for the local 3)
We
wide
found variety
that a
insects
and Seasonal variation in availability
amphibians, crustaceans.
eptiles,
and were most
was amphibians, crustaceans
ty found. Plants, insects, c
and abundance
id diverse during the hot season, while fish diversity
few were found predominate
during rainy season. Very species to
the
t
MORENO-BLACK
ET
No.l
AL. Vol.
100 16,
market variability was high. Cultural and social changes that are related to the
non-domes income
use of ticates as sources of are also discussed.
—
RESUMEN. Los no domesticados semidomesticados son
recursos alimenticios y
parte importante de vida tradicional en noreste de Tailandia. Estas plantas
la el y
animales, recolectados para una amplia variedad de propositos, estan siendo
puestos en venta con creciente frecuencia en los mercados locales y estan
convirtiendose en parte del sistema de intercambio comercial. Los mercados que
manana
operan temprano en la en esta region fueron estudiados a lo largo del
ano con el fin de: 1) documentar la frequencia y variacion estacional de recursos
no no
alimenticios domesticados; determinar cuales recursos alimenticios
2)
domesticados son fuente important de ingresos para poblacion local; y
la 3)
identificar factores que tienen un impacto sobre el mercadeo de estos articulos.
Encontramos que una amplia variedad de recursos no domesticados eran vendidos
en los mercados, incluyendo plantas, hongos, algas, peces, insectos, aves,
en
mamiferos, reptiles, anfibios y crustaceos. Se encontro variacion estacional la
disponsibilidad y diversidad. Las plantas, insectos, anfibios y crustaceos fueron
mas comunes y diversos durante la temporada de calor, mientras que la diversidad
mayor
y abundancia de peces fue durante la epoca de lluvias. Se encontraron
muy
pocas especies que predominaran y la variabilidad en el mercado fue alta.
Los cambios culturales y sociales que estan relacionados con uso de los recursos
el
no como
domesticados fuente de ingreso son tambien abordados.
—
RESUME. demi un
Les ressources alimentaires sauvages a sauvages jouent
et
du
role important dans vie traditionnelle Nord-Est de Thailande. Ces plantes
la la
et ces animaux, recoltes pour de multiples raisons, sont de plus en plus vendus
sur les marches locaux et sont en train de devenir partie integrante du systeme
Nous du
d'echange commercial avons pendant une annee marches
etudie
les
matin dans region de des
cette afin faire l'inventaire ressources alimentaires
1)
sauvages en tenant compte des variations saisonnieres, determiner quels
2)
produits alimentaires sauvages pouvaient constituer une source de revenu
importante pour les communautes locales, et 3) identifier les facteurs qui pouvaient
influencer mise en vente des memes Nous avons qu'une
le produits. ainsi constate
grande variete de produits sauvages etaient vendus sur marches dont des
les
plantes, des champignons, des algues, des poissons, des insectes, des oiseaux, des
mammiferes,
des reptiles, des batraciens et des crustaces. La disponibilite et la
diversite des produits variaient egalement selon les saisons. Les plantes, les
communs
insectes, les batraciens et les crustaces etaient plus et diversifies durant
la saison seche tandis que les poissons etaient plus abondants et diversifies durant
la saison des pluies. Malgre la diversite des produits vendus, y avait tres peu
il
predominantes
d'especes et la variability etait tres grande sur les marches. Les
changements
culturels et sociaux lies a l'utilisation des produits sauvages en tant
que source de revenu sont aussi commentes.
INTRODUCTION
Non-domesticated 1 plants and animals have
significant cultural, biological,
and economic value and who
at local, regional, national levels. People utilize non-
domesticated resources to meet these needs often rely on organized exchange sys-
Summer
JOURNAL
1996 OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
101
them
terns to obtain (Dhanamitta De
et 1988; Beer and McDermott
al. 1989; Moreno-
Black
1991, Moreno-Black and
1994; Ngamsomsuke
Price
1993; Ngarmsak
1987;
et
al.
An
Scoones
1987;
important
et 1992). aspect
al. of recent
ethnobiological
studies
has been on how
the focus
resources
are defined, appropriated, and
distributed.
Most
subsistence-based communities
are linked economic and
to larger
politi-
systems through
cal markets.
Consequently, markets
are a valuable arena
for gath-
ering information on
people-resource
relationships. Recent marketplace
studies
have shown
the importance domain
of this for monitoring changing
selection pres-
on
sures
specific resources, by
selection people because
i.e., of culturally defined
qualities of the items (Bye and
Linares
1983, 1990; Jacquat Johnson and
1990;
Johnson
1976; Pei 1987, 1988; Schlage Scoones
1969; Wester and
1992;
et al.
Chuensanguansat
Wanatabe and
1994; Satrawaha Whitaker and
1984; Cutler
1966).
The
sale of non-domesticated
resources in the market can lead more
to intensified
interactions with the environment,
modification of habitats, selection and mainte-
nance how
and
of certain plants, changes
in individuals exert control over each
other for the use
of these resource
areas.
This paper based on
is research conducted in northeastern Thailand from 1990
We
through
examined
1992. the occurrence of non-domesticated and
plants
ani-
mals
group
in a of markets in northeastern Thailand as part of a larger investiga-
We
tion of the use of non-domesticated food aim how
resources. to contextualize
We
non-domesticated
resources on
are utilized the local level. are particularly
in-
terested in the process of transformation by which biological resources used
for
home
consumption become
tradeable commodities.
Our
specific objectives in surveying the markets were as follows: document
1)
the prevalence of non-domesticated foods in the marketplace; evaluate varia-
2)
tion in the availability of these items; determine the types of non-domesticated
3)
foods
important income
that are generators for the people of northeastern Thai-
and
land,
4) identify factors that lead to these resources being selected for market
home we
sale as well as consumption. In this selection process see some of the
and
cultural social factors involved in this transformation.
—
Northeast Thailand: Its environment, people, and markets. The northeastern part of
Thailand, called Isan, the largest of the country's four major geographic regions.
is
Isan is characterized by a distinctive language and culture similar to those of neigh-
boring Laos. contains one third of the nation's population and usually consid-
It is
ered and
the poorest economically developed region of the country. This
least re-
gion has been inhabited for a long time. Archaeological sites with some of the
work
earliest evidence in Asia of agriculture, pottery, and bronze are located in
the Northeast (Higham Solheim
1982; 1986).
Isan characterized by a gently sloping plateau of undulating mini-water-
is
sheds and flood plains, but also includes a zone of hills and upland areas in the
—
west and the south (Hafner These which and extract moisture from
1990). hills
—
airstreams during monsoon periods are most pronounced in the western and
southern While
part of the region. contributing to the biodiversity of the region,
they making more The
also create a rain-shadow, the area susceptible to droughts.
climate is usually differentiated into three seasons: 1) the "cool" season from No-
vember to February, the "hot" season from March to mid-May, and the "wet"
2) 3)
MORENO-BLACK
ET
102
AL. No.l
Vol.
16,
mid-May
season from
to October.
The
environment
semi-arid greatly influenced the traditional subsistence sys
and
tern other adaptations to the habitat. Traditionally, the people in the North
east adjusted to variability in these habitat factors through the development of
<
combined
subsistence system, which they complemented on
in
their reliance
th<
and
staple rice other subsistence crops with a large input from wild food (Moreno
Somnasan
1986).
The and
fauna
rich flora in
and
ful plants animals that are gathered for a wide variety of purposes, including
foods, building materials, medicinal and These
crafts, uses, religious
activities.
indigenous and knowledge
practices the that they represent have been developed
many
over and
generations are deeply ingrained in regional Thai culture
—
The
(Phithakpol by
1990). diet characterized a staple core of glutinous
rice, fish,
—
and
products
fish embellished with a variety of wild and semi-domesti-
is local
and
cated plants animals (Moreno-Black Ngamsomsuke
1991, 1994; 1987;
et
al.
Ngarmsak
Pradipasen Somnasang
1987; 1985; These important
et al. et 1988).
al.
—
items collected from forests, upland paddies, gardens, house
fields, rice areas,
—
swamps, dam
canals, ponds, and
rivers, areas contribute valuable nutrients.
Coupled
with
a variety of cooking methods, they add diversity an otherwise
to
monotonous
(Moreno-Black Somnasang
diet
1991;
1988).
et
al.
These food have more become
items recently an important source income
of
for Isan villagers. In the early 1960s in Isan changed considerably. This marked
life
the beginning of the government's focus on development, introduced with the
"National Economic Development
first Plan." National government involvement
in the market system began
local in the early 1950s with the keeping of
official
Government
records. involvement
markets
in the increased with construction of
permanent
and
structures other physical improvements and maintenance
of these
Today
facilities. markets are maintained through by
users' fees collected daily a
government
company
office or a private on
contract to the government.
development
also greatly influenced
markets
more
closely integrated into the wider market system. As numbers
large
of villag-
ers in the Northeast for the time entered
first the market-oriented economic
sys-
tem, items
traditionally collected for consumption from
local
local forests, rivers,
and
other resource
areas, as well as village agricultural products, were rapidly
incorporated growing
into the economic system. Today common
increasingly
is
it
to find gathered, non-domesticated, and
semi-domesticated and
plants animals
market
system Qacquat
1990; Levin Wester
1992;
now
These markets
reorespnt nlarp of infpncp
a
int,
between
peopl
METHODS
The market system
in northeastern Thailand mar
includes
several types of
First are the early-morning markets, primarily between
active four a.m. anc
.
or nine a.m. Second are the all-day markets, where may
begin
Lt activity
a;
)
Summer JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
1996
103
and
early as six a.m. continue throughout the day. Third are the afternoon or
late
early evening markets. Fourth are the night markets, predominantly oriented
to
the selling of cooked food. Our study was conducted only the early morning
at
markets predominant market
since these are the locus of activity for rural village
farmers. The sample included markets located in rural areas as well as near and
within cities (Figure Market size varied with location and season (Table The
1). 1).
smallest, and most rural, varied from 93 vendors in the hot season to 68 in the
The towns and popu-
cool. largest market, centrally located near three a large rural
We
lation varied from 312 vendors in the cool season and 353 in the rainy season.
and found market and
consulted with district offices their records of size varia-
based on be
tion, daily fee collection, to similar to ours.
—
TABLE Number
vendors per market by season.
of
1.
KM CP HP WP TK TN BF SEL RE CY
Markets Bor Total
Hot 218 226 146 211 183 216 216 92 347 221 163 2,239
1739
Rainy 119 124 140 145 98 120 238 93 353 174 135
Cool 178 151 179 102 167 162 277 68 312 225 110 1,931
Total 515 501 465 458 448 498 731 253 1012 620 408 5,909
**
Legend Markets
for
KM TN
Tuenj-Nathorn
Kamalasai (Pu) (T)
CP Chaturaphak Phiman BF Ban Fang (R)
(Pu)
HP Selaphum
Hui Phung Sel (R)
(R)
WP
RE
Wapi Pathum Roi Et (T)
(T)
CY Yun
Chiang
(Pu)
Borabu
Bor
(T)
TK
Kaset
Talaat (T)
*Species diversity was greatest during the hot season (F = 32.89, df = 20, 2; p < .001
= T = Town, R = Rural
**Pu Peri-urban,
We
annual characterize
surveyed markets during the climatic cycle,
11
was
markets information obtained
and wet Within the
seasons.
cool, hot,
we
market and interviewing vendors. In addition obt;
through surveying the
on
information concerning marketing practices and resource utilization in
two
—
//
continuous
At market
The market each
survey.
We
worked Walking through designated
a
in pairs.
items
When we
were unfamiliar with particular items
number //
stall."
item
markets were interviewed obtain
to
survey
mar
and
gathermg
were practices, their
information about items they selling, their
wen
on
3 We vendors the interview based the items they
chose for
keting
habits.
who
were
We interviewing vendors selling items tha
gave priority to
selling. first
h^H nnf nrpvinndv hppn recorded. The open-ended interview included 1) brie
v
. .
MORENO No.l
Vol.
16,
104
.—Map Thailand with
FIGURE northeastern
of
1
markets.
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Legend Markets
for
:
S":
>!>
:»
J^-
•f
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1
'.-''
Yun
Chiang
2
•'''-:•:-:-»>
Kamalasai
3
:-:-<5
y^:
:-::-" -' - •
4 TalaatKaset
'.-.:•;,
:'::!«'--
'»>>::•:•>;-
Tuenj-Nathorn
5
VWV-!.
HuiPhung
6
7 Roi Et
Selaphum
8
Phiman
Chaturaphak
' 9
Borabu
10
Wapi Pathum
11
Location of study
Figure sites
1.
Summer
1996 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
105
demographic
information on
the vendor; item name;
2) price per unit of pur-
3)
chase; and
collection
4) site resource-area status public or
(e.g., private); collec-
5)
methods,
tion including whether was
permission needed
to collect the item and
whether when
home
this differed gathering consumption
for
or
for selling;
6)
management
and
propagation and methods
practices; uses; cooking
7) 8) of or
preparation.
Raw
The samples.— and
plant animal samples were
purchased,
usually
in the units
which were
they
in sold. Color slide photographs were taken most
of of the items
were
in the focus village to confirm or expand
mation. specimens
Plant
rium Khon
at
Ethnographic data market
We
in Kalasin Province.
viewed
villagers using both semi-structured and focus-group The
interviews.
ii
terview
questionnaire included topics concerning gathering and know
practices
edge wild and
of foods their habitats, use of gathered foods, and women's plan
management
The
practices. focus-group interviews centered on gathering ar
marketing and
practices use of non-domesticated food.
RESULTS
How
prevalent are non-domesticated resources in the marketplace and which resources are
—
One
being income our was
utilized as generators! of original objectives to evaluate
the prevalence of non-domesticated resources in the marketplace and to identify
We
which
becoming
species are important sources of income. believed that docu-
menting would
these resources provide baseline data, since information cur-
little
on which
rently exists the extent to these resources are being utilized to generate
common
As
any wide were
cash. is in marketplace, a array of items sold at the 11
We
markets in the survey. observed raw food; cooked foods, which included snacks
as well as composite dishes to be purchased and eaten later at home; clothing; dry
goods; and numerous Although no
cutlery; firewood; charcoal; other items. large
domesticated animals such as pigs, cattle, or buffalo were ever observed for sale,
occasionally a vendor did have live chickens.
we
During the course of the survey of the 11 markets, recorded a total of 15,789
We
we
items being by vendors found vendors
sold 5,909 (Table that of the 5,909
1).
4% 2% men women
94% were women, were men, and were and work-
recorded,
ing together. The number and percent of the different types of domestic and non-
shown
raw
domestic foods recorded the markets are in Table Plants repre-
at 2.
sented the largest category, and a total of 110 non-domesticated and 130 domesti-
whole
cated plant food items were identified in the 11 markets. For the survey
period, the number of non-domesticated plant items per market ranged from
total
A
We
mushrooms
26 to recorded 19 different kinds of during the survey. vari-
64.
ety of non-domesticated animals were recorded at the markets and represented
common
13% of the items sold during the survey. Fish were the most animals seen
were
at the markets, with a total of 46 varieties observed. Fifteen different insects
TABLE
2.-Number and percent of times raw food items were recorded at the markets by category and type.
o\
Mammal
Category Amphibian
Plant Fungi Insect Crustacean Reptile Bird Fish Total
Non-domestic:
Number
of observances 3022 114 178 268 437 21 3 5 998 5042
%
0% 0% 0% 32%
of observations 19.10% 0.70% 1.70% 2.80% 0.10% 6.30%
all 1 1
.
Domestic:
Number
of observations 10,122 2 37 197 310 10,743
%
0% 0% 0% 0%
64% 68%
of observations 0.20% .20% 2.00% 0.50%
all 1 O
Total observations 13,144 116 215 268 437 21 200 315 1073 15,789
tn
Z
%
o
83%
Total 0.70% 1.30% 1.70% 2.80% 0.10% .30% 2.00% 6.80% 100%
1
I
n
hi
£
On
z
o
Summer JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
1996
107
observed during
the survey.
How
variable are non-domesticated
resources in the marketplace in terms of their diversity
—
We
and were
availability? interested in evaluating the variation in the occurrence
We
non-domesticated
of resources in the marketplace. thought information
this
would
provide some
insight into of the factors affecting the changing patterns of
we
resource use. In particular, were interested in determining there were
differ-
if
which
ent seasons in non-domesticated foods predominated and which
species
commonly
were
throughout
utilized the region.
we
In terms of overall market activity, found the hot season (March through
June) to be the most active period at the markets; 36% of the vendors worked
during time period. The markets were during
this slightly less active the cool (34%)
and
rainy seasons (30%). Seasonal variation in species diversity at the markets
was
with
significant, the greatest diversity of items occurring in the hot season
(Table However, fish were found to be more plentiful and sold in greater vari-
3).
Few
during most
ety the rainy season. fish species are "reared" or "stocked," so
are dependent on rainfall. Plants, insects, amphibians, and crustaceans were most
abundant and most
diverse during the hot season, also the period of the active
markets. The hot season (February-May) considered the season of most
fre-
is
month was
quent food normally
shortage. April, the hottest of the year, consis-
tently identified as the most difficult time. Non-domesticated foods are also scarc-
paddy
est during the hot season and few are found in the fields then. In this sea-
son ponds water and ditches assume special importance as
that retain irrigation
resource areas. Villagers utilize a wide variety of resources during the hot season,
including amphibians, and Rats (noo puk)
crabs, snails, fish, reptiles, birds, insects.
are eaten more often during this time than at any other season of the year.
—
TABLE Number
non-domesticated plants recorded each
3. of different at
market market
sample).
(11
KM WP
CP HP TK TN BF SEL RE CY
Market Bor Total
Season
Hot X = 29.4 31 35 26 40 33 14 34 18 38 34 20 323
Rainy X = 20.8 14 21 7 35 20 15 30 15 27 31 14 229
X 202
Cool = 17 14 14 20 24 7 21 13 23 33 16
18.4
Total X = 46.6 40 48 34 62 50 26 62 38 60 58 35 513
**
Legend Markets
for
KM TN
Tuenj-Nathorn
Kamalasai (T)
(Pu)
CP Phiman BF Ban Fang
Chaturaphak (Pu) (R)
HP Selaphum
Hui Phung (R)
Sel
(R)
WP
RE
Wapi Pathum Roi Et (T)
(T)
CY
Chiang Yun
(Pu)
Bor Borabu
(T)
TK
Kaset
Talaat (T)
was during the hot season (F = 32.89, df = 20, p < .001)
Species diversity greatest 2;
** R=
T=Town, Rural
Pu=Peri-urban,
MORENO-BLACK
ET
108 Ah. No.l
Vol.
16,
amount many
Since the least of agricultural activity occurs in the hot season,
individuals turn to off-farm activities and wage labor to earn cash. Despite the
difficulty of obtaining non-domesticated items in the hot season, marketing them
becomes women who
economic
a viable have
activity, especially for limited ac-
cess to other cash-generating activities. At this season market activity provides
important food and cash inputs. Most villagers indicated that they bought non-
if
domesticated foods at they did so most often in the hot season when resources
all,
were and
scarce
difficult to obtain.
We
were
interested in determining which species were most commonly
uti-
income
lized for generation, because these species might be under increased
se-
We
lective pressure were
locally. also interested in patterns of species diversity
among
and
within
the markets, as these patterns might indicate the impact of
item
human
may
was
considerable
variety in the non-domesticated
markets (Tables only were found
3, 4, 5); six at all 11 markets. Nineteen sp
mushrooms w
were
observed being
sold 99 times over There
seasons.
all
siderable variation in the species of mushrooms seen markets
at the different
no was
species found mushroom
5, 6, 7); at all the markets. Sixteen speci<
during
season.
—
TABLE
Number
4. of different non-domesticated which were
plants
more
markets
markets
25 plants were found
at just market
1
19 plants were found
at 2 markets
were found
11 plants
at 3 markets
14 plants were found
at 4 markets
7 plants were found
at 5 markets
6 plants were found
at 6 markets
were found
3 plants
at 7 markets
4 plants were found
at markets
8
10 plants were found
at 9 markets
5 plants were found
at 10 markets
6 plants were found
at markets
11
TABLE
mushrooms
6. recorded in the 11 market sam
Number
Season Number
of Species Number
of Occurrences Markets
of
Hot
11 34
8
Rainy
16
38
10
Cool
3
22
8
Total 19
99
11