No Contest: Case Against Competition

338 Pages·1993·12.8 MB·English

by  Alfie Kohn

ACCLAIM FOR
No Contest
Recipient of the American Psychological Association's
National Psychology Award for Excellence in the Media
·~sophisticated book ... [that] cuts to the bone, paring away our
false beliefs in competition as the backbone of U.S. superiority in
the world, in sports, production, happiness, whatever. Alfie Kahn,
scholarly, scolding, eloquent, demolishes all the myths."
··Minneapolis Star-Trihuue
"One of the most thought-provoking books of this or any other year
... [1t J truly engages a reader from first page to last."
··- 11-tst Coast Review cif Books
"[AJ penetrating and convincing study." ···· BoJton Herald
"Well researched and thought-provoking . . Alfie Kahn's book
about the ill effects of competition will cause arguments at the din
ncr table and heated debate among educators."
- United Press International
·~ brilliant debunking of America's most sacred cow. Kohn demol
ishes the myths of competition decisively and irrefutably."
- Philip Slater
·~nyone who cares about education and children will find reading
this book a necessity."
David W. Johnson
"Kohn marshals the evidence that [competition] is not the main
spring of achievement in industry, the arts, education, or games."
- ·Dr. Benjamin Spack
"Well researched and sound, No Contest exposes erroneous assump
tions about the inevitability and value of competition. This book
encourages a spirit of cooperation in human affairs. It deserves our
attention."
-Dr. Carl Rogers
"By perceiving that cooperation is the answer, not competition, Al
fie Kohn opens a new world ofliving. I am deeply indebted to him.''
--W. Edwards Deming
BooKs BY ALFIE KoHN
No Contest
The Brighter Side of Human Nature
You Know What They Say ...
Punished by Rewards
Beyond Discipline
Education, Inc.
What to Look for in a Classroom ... and Other Essays
The Schools Our Children Deserve
The Case Against Standardized Testing
What Does It Mean to Be Well Educated?
Unconditional Parenting
The Homework Myth
No Contest
THE CASE AGAINST
COMPETITION
Revised Edition
ALFIE KOHN
HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY
Boston New York
Copyright ~ 1986, 1992 by Alfie Kohn
All rights reserved
For information about permission to reproduce
selections from this book, write to Permissions,
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1115 Park Avenue South,
New York, New York 10003.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kohn, Alfie.
No contest : the case against competition I Alfie Kohn.
-Rev. ed.
p. em.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-395-63125-6
I. Competition (Psychology) 2. Cooperativeness.
3. Aggressiveness (Psychology) 4. Social interaction-United
States. I. Title.
HMllgt.K634 1992
302'.14- dcao ga-26141
C1P
Printed in the United States of America
DOH 20 I9 IS I7
The author is grateful for permission to use excerpts from:
"Success Anxiety in Women" by Georgia Sassen in Horoord EdvcGlioMI
Rtl~Ww, February 1980, so: 1. Copyright ~ 1g8o by the President and
Fellows of Harvard College. All rights reserved.
"Mama Told Me Not to Come" by Randy Newman. Copyright~ 1g66
by january Music Corp. Assigned to Unichappell Music, Inc. Interna
tional Copyright Secured. All Rights Reserved. Used by permission.
Books and anicles quoted or cited in the text under the usual fair use
allowances are acknowledged in the notes and references.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
For almost every person who writes a book, there is a circle of friends,
relatives, and (if the author is sufficiently preoccupied with the proj
ect) even casual acquaintances who have been subjected to conversa
tion about it. A well-known writer once turned me down for an inter
view, claiming he didn't like to talk about whatever he was working
on at the time lest his energies be drained. This still baffles me. For
the last ten years, I've been eager to talk about competition with
anyone who spoke English. The many discussions that resulted have
refined my thinking on the subject immeasurably, and I'm grateful
to those who have listened and questioned and argued. The same
goes for those who spoke up after more formal talks I've given in the
Boston area and for my students at Tufts University and the Cam
bridge Center for Adult Education who wrestled with the topic for
an entire semester. No one had to put up with more than those who
live (or have lived) in the cooperative house I lived in for five years:
Carol Hetrick, Phil Korman, Ellen Carlino, Marianne Takas, Jeb
Brugmann, Claudia Cahan, Bob Irwin, Carol Dirga, Don Bishop, and
Lynne Weiss.
My interest in competition can be understood in this context: I am
fascinated by questions that seem basic to being human, that address
us as whole persons rather than just as disembodied intellects, and
that cannot be dealt with adequately within the confines of a single
academic discipline. That I have such an orientation is due largely to
two people: Rob Beneckson awakened it, prodding me to start read
ing in psychology and helping me to read critically. George Morgan
shaped it, becoming for me a mentor in the best sense of that word -
and, later, a treasured friend.
My original plan was to edit a collection of essays on competition,
but it wasn't long before I realized I had a lot more to say than could
be contained in an introduction. While I was trying to say it, I pressed
drafts of chapters on people whose judgment I valued, hoping for
critical readings. I was not disappointed, and I am pleased to thank
Laura Schenk, Claire Baker, Phil Korman, Stewart and Estelle Kahn,
v
VI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Susan Hewitt, Marianne Takas, and Georgia Sassen, all of whom
helped me to reach a much-needed sense of perspective in addition
to suggesting revisions large and small. I've learned about cooperative
learning from a number of people since the first edition of this book
was published; if I mention only Eric Schaps and David Johnson, it's
because they were kind enough to read and comment on my new
chapter that deals with the topic. (Alisa Harrigan did so, too, but she
has my gratitude for a lot more than that.)
Bill Greene's contribution merits a separate paragraph. In view of
his agile intelligence, I would have been happy with even a small
helping of his help. I was lucky enough to receive more hours than
I can count: he read every chapter, said a great deal about them-all
of it useful-and forced me to rewrite and rethink much of what
follows. Whatever you think of this book, it is far better than it would
have been without his help. The legal profession is lucky to have him.
With all of this advice and guidance, it would have been a shame
to keep the final product all to myself. This is where Larry Kessenich
and john Ware came in. Their enthusiasm for the project is responsi
ble for turning it into a published book. I have not only Larry but
also Ruth Hapgood, Lois Randall, and Gerry Morse to thank for
editing, as well.
Let me note, finally, that most of the research for this book was
done in the libraries of Harvard University, the size of whose holdings
is matched only by the school's determination to restrict access to
them. I am delighted to have been able to use these resources, and
it hardly matters that I was afforded this privilege only because the
school thought I was someone else.
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments • v
ONE • 1
THE "NUMBER ONE" OBSESSION
TWO • 11
IS COMPETITION INEVITABLE?
THE "HUMAN NATURE" MYTH
Playing the "Human Nature" Card
On Arguments for the Inevitability of Competition
The Real State of Nature
Learning Competition or Cooperation
Lift in Other Cultures
Ps-ychological Arguments for Inevitability
THREE • 45
IS COMPETITION MORE PRODUCTIVE?
THE REWARDS OF WORKING TOGETHER
Achitvtment and Competition
Explaining Competition's Failure
Productivity: Beyond the Individual's Perspective
Economic Competition
FOUR • 79
IS COMPETITION MORE ENJOY ABLE?
ON SPORTS, PLAY, AND FUN
The Question of Play
Fun Without Competition
viii CONTENTS
FIVE ' g6
DOES COMPETITION BUILD CHARACTER?
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Why We Compete
Winning, Losing, and Self-Esteem
Denying the Damage
Competition and Anxiety
Further Consequences of Competition
SIX ' 132
AGAINST EACH OTHER
INTERPERSONAL CONSIDERATIONS
Poisoning Our Relationships
Anatomy of a Rival
Aggression
Rx: Cooperation
We vs. They
Constructive Conflict
SEVEN ' 158
THE LOGIC OF PLAYING DIRTY
EIGHT ' 168
WOMEN AND COMPETITION
NINE ' 182
BEYOND COMPETITION
THOUGHTS ON MAKING CHANGE
Intentional and Structural Competition Revisited
How to Prevent Social Change
Toward a Noncompetitive Society
CONTENTS ix
TEN • 197
LEARNING TOGETHER
Baclc to School
Between Student and Student
The Effects of Cooperative Learning
The Practice of Cooperation
The Thru C's of Cooperation
The Prospects for Cooperation
AFTERWORD ' 233
Notes • 247
References • 289
Index • 315