Newnham College and Faculty of Economics and Politics, University of Cambridge

364 Pages·2009·18.78 MB·English

P235s°
Religion the Economics Fertility
and
of
in South
India
Sriya Iyer
Newnham College Faculty Economics
and of
University Cambridge
Politics,
of
and
UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY
CAMBRIDGE
January 2000
PREFACE
This dissertation is includes is done
the result of my own work and nothing which the outcome of work
in
collaboration.
The length of this dissertation does not exceed 80,000 words, as approved by the Degree Committee,
Faculty Economics Politics, University Cambridge.
of and of
ii
RELIGION AND THE ECONOMICS OF FERTILITY IN SOUTH INDIA
ABSTRACT
This thesis provides an account of the interplay between the economic, demographic and religious
factors influence first fertility,
which women's age at marriage, their adoption of contraception and their
in in India. In doing, it implications for
a group of rural communities southern so also assesses possible
in India, into differences in
state-level population policies which may need to take account nuptiality,
fertility
contraceptive adoption and across religious groups.
Religion is demography in first, its
conceptualised as affecting two ways: through philosophical content
or 'particularised theology', and second, in terms of `characteristics' or socio-economic differences
between different The focus is Hindu-Muslim demographics
members of religious groups. of this study
in India. Hence, 'particularised is dealt by in Chapter
the theology'
south component with undertaking,
I, a detailed comparison of the philosophical content of Islam and Hinduism on marriage, birth control,
importance family. The finding is
the position of women, and the of children within the main that with
birth is little difference between Hinduism Islam in
the exception of provisions on control, there and
demographic issues. The 'characteristics' is dealt by
their theological
positions on component with
including in The is investigate
socio-economic variables the econometric models. aim to whether there
differences in fertility decision
are any across religions the age at marriage, and the to use
for biological factors.
contraception, after controlling various economic, social and
I 1995-96 fieldwork data in
spent conducting micro-level and collecting primary a cluster of
in the Indian Karnataka. The Ramanagaram town five
communities south state of communities were and
in Ramanagaram in Karnataka. The fieldwork
villages the taluk of southern core of my consisted of
detailed interviews 201 Hindu, Muslim Christian The interviews
of a sample of rural and women.
involved 93 from designed Descriptions
questions administered a carefully questionnaire. of
Ramanagaram, dataset in Chapters 2 3.
the questionnaire and the are presented and
Chapter 4 determinants first OLS
analyses the of the age at marriage using methods and economic,
biological These include both demand-side
and socio-cultural explanatory variables. and supply-side
factors: income, education of the women and their husbands, their occupations, the year of marriage
(as a measure of `ideational change'), marital consanguinity, the age at menarche, religion, and caste
status (for the Hindus only). The results of the analysis show that there was no statistically significant
difference between Hindus and Muslims in the religious and socio-economic factors which affected
first
their age at marriage.
In Chapter 5, a logit model with interaction variables is used to explore the influence on contraceptive
husband's
adoption of a variety of variables: women's and education, their occupations, family
expenditure, ownership of a television (to measure `diffusion'), the influence of female extended
family
members, the ease of access to a contraceptive method, religion, and caste membership (for
Hindus only). The analysis concludes that there was no statistically significant difference between
Hindus and Muslims in the effect of different socio-economic factors on the decision to use
contraception.
In Chapter 6, fertility OLS interaction
the analysis of using methods and variables explores the effect
born influences
on children ever of nonproximate such as education, expenditure, occupation,
consanguinity, woman's age, son-preference and access to water and fuel infrastructure. The
analysis
did
shows that while religion not exert a pure theological effect on fertility, there
were statistically
differences in the different factors
significant effects of socio-economic such as access to education
and fuel infrastructure, on the number of children ever born between Hindus, Muslims Christians.
and
The most important implication of this analysis is that the factors fertility
socio-economic
which affect
decisions in India be
south may not necessarily uniform across religious groups, and that the socio-
different
'characteristics'
economic of religious groups may need to be targeted differently by policy-
makers in order to influence demographic decision-making in India.
south
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST
OF FIGURES
vii
...................................................................................................................................
LIST
OF MAPS
vii
.........................................................................................................................................
LIST
OF TABLES
viii
....................................................................................................................................
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Xi
..........................................................................................................................
GLOSSARY
OF FOREIGN WORDS
xii
............................................................................................................
MAPS
xiv
......................................................................................................................................................
INTRODUCTION 1
.........................................................................................................................................
1. THE HISTORICAL ROOTS OF COMMUNALISM AND ITS RELEVANCE TO THE STUDY OF FERTILITY 4
....
II. THE 7
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
.......................................................................................................
111. OVERVIEW 8
OF THE KEY FINDINGS AND GAPS IN THE ANALYSIS
.......................................................
A. Omitted fertility 9
effects of religion on
.............................................................................................
B. Special features the 13
of sample area
..............................................................................................
CHAPTER 1: RELIGION AND REPRODUCTION: AN EXAMINATION OF THE IMPACT
OF RELIGION ON DEMOGRAPHY 15
................................................................................................
I. HYPOTHESES ABOUT THE IMPACT OF RELIGION ON FERTILITY 16
.......................................................
A. The `pure hypothesis 17
religion effect'
...........................................................................................
1. Islam 18
...........................................................................................................................................................
The basic tenets Islam 18
a. and structure of
...............................................................................................
b. Islam divorce 21
on marriage, polygyny and
...........................................................................................
Islam birth 25
c. on control and abortion
.....................................................................................................
d. Islam in the family, 26
on women's status children and son-preference
................................................
Empirical for the influence Islam fertility 28
e. evidence of on
..................................................................
2. Hinduism 29
....................................................................................................................................................
The basic tenets Hinduism 29
a. and structure of
........................................................................................
b. Hinduism divorce 31
on marriage, polygamy and
...................................................................................
Hinduism birth 32
c. on control and abortion
..............................................................................................
d. Hinduism in the family, 32
on women's status children and son-preference
.........................................
Empirical for the influence Hinduism fertility 35
e. evidence of on
...........................................................
3. Islam Hinduism 36
and compared
.................................................................................................................
B. The `characteristics' hypothesis
38
....................................................................................................
CHAPTER 2: RAMANAGARAM: MYTHICAL ORIGINS, PRESENT-DAY REALITIES....... 52
1. PROFILE INDIAN
OF A SOUTH TOWN 53
..................................................................................................
A. Structure
53
........................................................................................................................................
B. Reasons for Ramanagaram fir field
64
choosing study
...................................................................
II. THE
DATA SET 67
...................................................................................................................................
A. Methodology: sampling procedure, sample size and method of interview 68
..................................
B. The
72
questionnaire
..........................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 3: THE `CENSUS' INFORMATION ON THE SAMPLE
75
............................................
I. RURAL
VS. URBAN RESIDENCE 75
...........................................................................................................
II. CASTE
AND JATI 75
................................................................................................................................
Ill. AGE
76
..................................................................................................................................................
IV. LANGUAGE
77
.......................................................................................................................................
V. LITERACY
78
..........................................................................................................................................
VI. PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY OCCUPATIONS 80
.....................................................................................
VII. HUSBAND'S
CHARACTERISTICS 82
.....................................................................................................
iv
VIII.
INCOME 84
.........................................................................................................................................
A. Land 88
ownership
.............................................................................................................................
B. Consumer 89
expenditure
..................................................................................................................
C. Consumer 93
equipment
..................................................................................................................
IX.
THE NATURE OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE: THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE, THE DECISION TO
USE CONTRACEPTION AND CHILDREN EVER BORN 98
................................................................................
CHAPTER 4: THE DETERMINANTS OF NUPTIALITY: THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE
IN RAMANAGARAM 105
.......................................................................................................................
I. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE 106
..................................................................
A. Education 106
................................................................................................................................................
B. Women's 110
employment
............................................................................................................................
C. Income 111
.....................................................................................................................................................
D. Social 116
norms
............................................................................................................................................
E. Religious, differences 118
ethnic and caste
..................................................................................................
F. Husband's 120
occupation
.............................................................................................................................
G. Age 121
at menarche
.....................................................................................................................................
H. Marital 124
consanguinity
............................................................................................................................
1. Other factors 127
............................................................................................................................................
KARNATAKA
H. A 131
SURVEY OF THE TRENDS IN MARRIAGE AGE IN
....................................................
III. A MODEL OF THE DETERMINANTS OF THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE IN RAMANAGARAM 134
.........
IV. CONCLUSION 156
..................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 5: THE DETERMINANTS OF CONTRACEPTIVE USE IN RAMANAGARAM. 168
I. THEORIES OF THE DETERMINANTS OF CONTRACEPTIVE USE 170
.........................................................
II. CONTRACEPTIVE RAMANAGARAM 184
USE IN
.....................................................................................
III. FERTILITY PREFERENCES, IDEAL FAMILY SIZE AND UNWANTED FERTILITY 195
..............................
A. Fertility 196
preferences
.....................................................................................................................
B. Ideal family fertility 201
size and unwanted
......................................................................................
IV. A 209
LOGIT MODEL OF CONTRACEPTIVE USE
....................................................................................
V. CONCLUSION 220
...................................................................................................................................
CHAPTER 6: THE DETERMINANTS OF FERTILITY IN RAMANAGARAM 230
......................
I. PROXIMATE
DETERMINANTS AND NONPROXIMATE DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCES 230
.....................
A. Proximate determinants
230
..............................................................................................................
B. Nonproximate `developmental' determinants
233
............................................................................
1. Infant
and child mortality 233
.......................................................................................................................
2. Education
234
.................................................................................................................................................
3. Employment
237
.............................................................................................................................................
4. Income
239
......................................................................................................................................................
5. Women's female
status and autonomy 240
.....................................................
..............................................
6. Children investment
as consumer, producer and goods 242
.......................................................................
Water infrastructure
a. 244
...........................................................................................................................
b. Fuel infrastructure
247
..............................................................................................................................
7. Son-preference
252
.........................................................................................................................................
8. Extended family
254
.......................................................................................................................................
9. Religion
257
....................................................................................................................................................
10. Marital
consanguinity 262
...........................................................................................................................
11. Caste
262
.......................................................................................................................................................
12. Politics
263
....................................................................................................................................................
II. THE ALTERNATIVE: DO WE NEED AN `IDEATIONAL' THEORY OF FERTILITY? 264
.............................
III. CHILDREN
EVER BORN IN RAMANAGARAM 268
..................................................................................
IV. REGRESSION
MODELS OF THE NONPROXIMATE
DETERMINANTS OF FERTILITY IN
RAMANAGARAM
270
...................................................................................................................................
V. CONCLUSION
286
...................................................................................................................................
V
302
CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION
...........................................................................................................
319
APPENDIX
..........................................................................................................................................
337
LIST OF REFERENCES
..................................................................................................................
V1
LIST FIGURES
OF
CHAPTER 3
FIGURE 1. DISTRIBUTION (1996) 101
OF THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE
.......
FIGURE 2. DISTRIBUTION
OF THE DECISION TO USE CONTRACEPTION, RAMANAGARAM
(1996) 102
SAMPLE
......................................................................................................................................
FIGURE 3. DISTRIBUTION (1996) 103
OF CHILDREN EVER BORN, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE
...................
CHAPTER 4
FIGURE 1. FIVE-YEAR 154
MOVING AVERAGE OF AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE
............................................
FIGURE 2. PERCENTAGE 18 154
OF WOMEN MARRYING AFTER AGE
........................................................
CHAPTER 6
FIGURE 1. PROXIMATE 231
AND NONPROXIMATE DETERMINANTS OF FERTILITY CHANGE
....................
LIST MAPS
OF
MAP 1. STATES INDIA
AND UNION TERRITORIES OF xiii
...........................................................................
MAP 2. DISTRICTS KARNATAKA
OF
xiii
....................................................................................................
MAP 3. BANGALORE KARNATAKA
RURAL DISTRICT,
xiv
..........................................................................
MAP 4. RAMANAGARAM KARNATAKA
TALUK,
xv
.....................................................................................
vii
LIST TABLES
OF
INTRODUCTION
(1999) 3
TABLE 1: FERTILITY RATES BY RELIGIOUS GROUP, ALL-INDIA
AGE-SPECIFIC
..........................
(1996) 11
TABLE 2: INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE
.....................................
(1999) 12
TABLE 3: INFANT AND CHILD MORTALITY BY RELIGION, ALL-INDIA
.......................................
CHAPTER 1
44
INDIA (1995)
TABLE 1: SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC INDICES BY RELIGION FOR
...................................
INDIAN (1981-91)......... 46
TABLE 2: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY RELIGION, SELECTED STATES
KARNATAKA (1991) 47
TABLE 3: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY RELIGION, STATE
........................
BANGALORE (1991) 48
TABLE 4: DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION BY RELIGION, RURAL DISTRICT
.......
KARNATAKA (1992-93) 49
TABLE 5: TOTAL FERTILITY RATE AND CHILDREN EVER BORN,
...................
CHAPTER 2
RAMANAGARAM (1991).......... 54
TABLE 1: LOCATION OF HOUSEHOLDS IN TALUK
AND DISTRIBUTION
TABLE 2: BREAKDOWN OF POPULATION IN RAMANAGARAM TALUK BY RELIGION, SEX AND
55
(1991)
RESIDENCE
.........................................................................................................................
TABLE 3: SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF BANGALORE RURAL
66
DISTRICT AND KARNATAKA STATE
................................................................................................
AND DISTRIBUTION OF HOUSEHOLDS,
TABLE 4: LOCATION OF VILLAGES, AREA IN HECTARES
69
(1991)
RAMANAGARAM TALUK
.....................................................................................................
CHAPTER 3
(1996) 75
RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE
TABLE 1: RURAL VS. URBAN RESIDENCE,
........................................
(1996) 77
TABLE 2: LANGUAGES SPOKEN, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE
......................................................
INDIA, KARNATAKA, BANGALORE
TABLE 3: PERCENTAGE OF POPULATION THAT IS LITERATE IN
78
RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE
RURAL DISTRICT AND THE
...........................................................................
RAMANAGARAM (1996).. 80
TABLE 4: MEAN LEVEL OF YEARS OF EDUCATION BY RELIGION, SAMPLE
RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 81
TABLE 5: PRIMARY OCCUPATIONS OF WOMEN,
.............................
RAMANAGARAM (1996) 82
TABLE 6: SECONDARY OF WOMEN, SAMPLE
OCCUPATIONS
........................
RAMANAGARAM (1996) 83
TABLE 7: PRIMARY OCCUPATIONS OF HUSBANDS, SAMPLE
..........................
RAMANAGARAM (1996) 84
TABLE 8: SECONDARY OCCUPATIONS OF HUSBANDS, SAMPLE
.....................
RAMANAGARAM (1996).
TABLE 9: MEAN MONTHLY TOTAL EXPENDITURE BY RELIGION, SAMPLE
90
(RUPEES)
.........................................................................................................................................
RAMANAGARAM
TABLE 10: MEAN MONTHLY PER CAPITA EXPENDITURE BY RELIGION, SAMPLE
90
(1996). (RUPEES)
............................................................................................................................
RAMANAGARAM
TABLE 11: OWNERSHIP OF ITEMS OF CONSUMER EQUIPMENT BY RELIGION,
94
(1996)
SAMPLE
................................................................................................................................
TABLE 12: CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS BETWEEN DIFFERENT MEASURES OF INCOME,
(1996) 97
RAMANAGARAM
SAMPLE
...................................................................................................
TABLE 13: WOMEN'S AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 99
............................
TABLE 14: YEARS SINCE FIRST MARRIAGE, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 99
....................................
TABLE 15: DISTRIBUTION OF THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 100
......
TABLE 16: WOMEN'S DECISION TO USE CONTRACEPTION, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE, (1996) 101
........
TABLE 17: DISTRIBUTION OF THE DECISION TO USE CONTRACEPTION, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE
(1996) 101
............................................................................................................................................
TABLE 18: CHILDREN EVER BORN, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 102
................................................
104
TABLE 19: DISTRIBUTION RAMANAGARAM (1996)
OF CHILDREN EVER BORN,
SAMPLE
.................
viii
CHAPTER 4
TABLE 1: MARITAL RAMANAGARAM (1996) 126
CONSANGUINITY BY RELIGION, SAMPLE
...................
TABLE 2: AGE-SPECIFIC KARNATAKA (1998); RAMANAGARAM (1996) 132
FIRST MARRIAGE,
.............
TABLE 3: OLS HINDUS
ESTIMATES OF THE DETERMINANTS OF THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE,
(RAMANAGARAM, 1996) 142
ONLY
...........................................................................................................
TABLE 4: OLS MUSLIMS
ESTIMATES OF THE DETERMINANTS OF THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE,
(RAMANAGARAM, 1996) 143
ONLY
...................................................................................................
TABLE 5: OLS
ESTIMATES OF THE DETERMINANTS OF THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE, POOLED
HINDUS MUSLIMS (RAMANAGARAM, 1996) 144
MODEL OF AND
......................................................
TABLE 6: OLS INTERACTION MODEL OF THE DETERMINANTS OF THE AGE AT FIRST MARRIAGE
(RAMANAGARAM 1996) 147
SAMPLE, ALL RELIGIONS,
.....................................................................
CHAPTER 5
TABLE 1: INFANT MORTALITY BY RELIGION, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 183
...............................
TABLE 2: CHILDREN EVER BORN NET OF INFANT MORTALITY, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996).. 183
TABLE 3: METHOD OF BIRTH CONTROL USED, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 185
.............................
TABLE 4: PERSON(S) INFLUENCING DECISIONS ABOUT BIRTH CONTROL, RAMANAGARAM
(1996) 188
SAMPLE
......................................................................................................................................
TABLE 5: INFLUENCE OF FEMALE EXTENDED FAMILY MEMBERS OR FRIENDS ON FAMILY
RAMANAGARAM (1996) 189
PLANNING, SAMPLE
......................................................................................
TABLE 6: DOES RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996)....... 190
YOUR RELIGION PERMIT CONTRACEPTION?
RAMANAGARAM
TABLE 7: VIEW REGARDING POSITION OF RELIGION ON BIRTH CONTROL,
191
(1996)
SAMPLE
......................................................................................................................................
TABLE 8: FREQUENCY OF VISITS TO FAMILY PLANNING CENTRE/LOCAL HOSPITAL,
RAMANAGARAM (1996) 193
SAMPLE
.........................................................................................................
TABLE 9: EASE OF OBTAINING CONTRACEPTION, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 194
........................
TABLE 10: PREFERENCES RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 196
FOR CHILDREN,
....................................
RAMANAGARAM (1996)
TABLE 11: REASONS FOR DESIRING ANOTHER BOY OR GIRL, SAMPLE 197
.....
TABLE 12: PREFERENCES BETWEEN BOYS AND GIRLS, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 198
................
TABLE 13: WHETHER HUSBAND WANTS ANOTHER CHILD, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 200
..........
EVER-MARRIED
TABLE 14: Do YOU HAVE A DESIRED/IDEAL NUMBER OF CHILDREN? WOMEN,
RAMANAGARAM (1996) 201
SAMPLE
.................................................................................................
TABLE 15: IDEAL NUMBER OF CHILDREN, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 202
....................................
TABLE 16: UNWANTED FERTILITY, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 203
...............................................
TABLE 17: WOULD YOU HAVE WANTED FEWER CHILDREN? EVER-MARRIED WOMEN,
RAMANAGARAM (1996) 204
SAMPLE
.................................................................................................
TABLE 18: REASONS FOR WANTING/NOT WANTING FEWER CHILDREN, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE
(1996) 206
............................................................................................................................................
TABLE 19: LARGE FAMILIES VIS-A-VIS SMALL FAMILIES, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996)............ 207
TABLE 20: LOGIT MAXIMUM LIKELIHOOD ESTIMATION OF THE DETERMINANTS OF CONTRACEPTIVE
USE (RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE, ALL RELIGIONS, 1996) 214
..............................................................
CHAPTER 6
TABLE 1: SOURCES RAMANAGARAM (1996)
OF WATER SUPPLY, SAMPLE 245
........................................
TABLE 2: WATER RAMANAGARAM
COLLECTION IN THE HOUSEHOLD, SAMPLE (1996) 246
..................
TABLE 3: SOURCE RAMANAGARAM (1996)
OF FUEL, SAMPLE 248
...........................................................
TABLE 4: COMBINATIONS
OF HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS WHO PERFORM FIREWOOD
COLLECTION
RAMANAGARAM (1996)
TASKS, SAMPLE 250
.....................................................................................
TABLE 5: HOUSEHOLD COMPOSITION TABLE, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE 255
(1996)
.............................
TABLE 6: ROLE
OF THE EXTENDED FAMILY IN ASSISTING WITH CHILD-CARE, RAMANAGARAM
(1996)
SAMPLE 256
..............................................................................................................................
TABLE 7: BREAKDOWN `OTHERS'
OF ASSISTING WITH CHILD RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE
-CARE,
(1996)
256
....................................................................................................................................................
IX
TABLE 8: FAITHFULNESS IN PRACTISING RELIGION, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 257
....................
TABLE 9: IMPORTANCE OF THE PRIEST'S OPINION, RAMANAGARAM SAMPLE (1996) 258
......................
TABLE 10: WOULD
YOU ASK ADVICE FROM YOUR PRIEST ABOUT ASPECTS OF YOUR LIFE?
RAMANAGARAM (1996) 259
SAMPLE
.................................................................................................
TABLE 11: FREQUENCY RAMANAGARAM (1996)........ 259
OF VISITS TO PLACES OF WORSHIP, SAMPLE
TABLE 12: FREQUENCY RAMANAGARAM
OF INTERACTION WITH OTHER RELIGIONS, SAMPLE
(1996) 260
....................................................................................................................................................
TABLE 13: NUMBER RAMANAGARAM (1996) 269
OF CHILDREN EVER BORN, SAMPLE
...........................
TABLE 14: OLS HINDUS
ESTIMATES OF THE DETERMINANTS OF CHILDREN EVER BORN, ONLY
(RAMANAGARAM, 1996) 276
..............................................................................................................
TABLE 15: OLS MUSLIMS
ESTIMATES OF THE DETERMINANTS OF CHILDREN EVER BORN, ONLY
(RAMANAGARAM, 1996) 277
..............................................................................................................
TABLE 16: OLS
ESTIMATES OF THE DETERMINANTS OF CHILDREN EVER BORN, POOLED MODEL
HINDUS MUSLIMS 278
OF AND
...................................................................................................................
TABLE 17: OLS
ESTIMATES OF THE DETERMINANTS OF CHILDREN EVER BORN, ALL RELIGIONS
(RAMANAGARAM, 1996) 281
..............................................................................................................
TABLE 18: WHAT
DO YOU FEEL ABOUT THE GROWTH OF POPULATION IN YOUR TOWN/VILLAGE?
RAMANAGARAM (1996) 301
SAMPLE
.................................................................................................
X