Serieseditor: P.K.R.Nair SchoolofForestResourcesandConservation,UniversityofFlorida,Gainesville,Florida,USA. Volume1 NEW VISTAS IN AGROFORESTRY A Compendium forthe 1stWorldCongress ofAgroforestry, 2004 EditedbyP.K.R.Nair, M.R.Rao,and L.E. Buck Reprinted fromthejournalAgroforestrySystems,Volumes61 &62,2004 SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V. AC.I.P.CataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress ISBN 978-90-481-6673-2 ISBN 978-94-017-2424-1 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-2424-1 printedonacid-freepaper Allrightreserved ©2004Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2004 No part of the material protected by this copyrightnotice may be reproducedor utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, includingphotocopying, recordingor by any informationstorage and retrieval system,withoutwrittenpermissionfromthecopyrightowner. AimsandScope Agroforestry, the purposefulgrowing of trees and crops in interacting combinations,beganto attain prominence inthelate1970s,whentheinternationalscientificcommunityembraceditspotentialsinthetropicsandrecognized itasapracticeinsearchofscience.Duringthe1990s,therelevanceofagroforestryforsolvingproblemsrelatedto deteriorationoffamilyfarms,increasedsoilerosion,surfaceandgroundwaterpollution,anddecreasedbiodiversity was recognized in the industrialized nations too. Thus, agroforestry is now receiving increasing attention as a sustainable land-management option the world over because of its ecological, economic, and social attributes. Consequently,theknowledge-baseofagroforestryisbeingexpandedatarapidrateasillustratedbytheincreasing numberandqualityofscientificpublicationsofvariousformsondifferentaspectsofagroforestry. Makingfullandefficientuseofthisupsurgeinscientificagroforestryisbothachallengeandanopportunitytothe agroforestryscientificcommunity.Inordertohelppreparethemselvesbetterforfacingthechallengeandseizing the opportunity, agoroforestryscientists needaccess to synthesized informationon multi-dimensionalaspects of scientificagroforesty. Theaimofthisnewbook-series,AdvancesinAgroforestry,istoofferstate-of-theartsynthesisofresearchresults and evaluationsrelating to differentaspects of agroforestry. Its scope is broadenoughto encompassany and all aspectsofagroforestryresearchanddevelopment.Contributionsarewelcomeaswellassolicitedfromcompetent authors on any aspect of agroforestry. Volumes in the series will consist of reference books, subject-specific monographs, peer-reviewedpublicationsoutof conferences, comprehensiveevaluationsof specific projects, and other book-lengthcompilations of scientific and professionalmerit and relevance to the science and practice of agroforestryworldwide. Contents Volume1 Preface 1 Introduction AgroforestryandtheachievementoftheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals byD.P.Garrity 5 Systems,Practices,andComponents HardwoodsilvopasturemanagementinNorthAmerica by H.E. Garrett, M.S. Kerley, K.P. Ladyman, W.D. Walter, L.D. Godsey, J.W. Van Sambeek and D.K.Brauer 21 Riparian forest buffersin agroecosystems– lessons learned from the Bear Creek Watershed, central Iowa,USA byR.C.Schultz,T.M.Isenhart,W.W.SimpkinsandJ.P.Colletti 35 Short-rotationwoodycropsandphytoremediation:Opportunitiesforagroforestry? by D.L.Rockwood, C.V. Naidu, D.R. Carter, M. Rahmani, T.A.Spriggs, C. Lin, G.R. Alker, J.G. IsebrandsandS.A.Segrest 51 WindbreaksinNorthAmericanagriculturalsystems byJ.R.Brandle,L.HodgesandX.H.Zhou 65 Organicfarmingandagroforestry:Alleycroppingformulchproductionfororganicfarmsofsoutheast- ernUnitedStates byC.F.Jordan 79 Mechanizedlandpreparationinforest-basedfallowsystems:TheexperiencefromEasternAmazonia by M. Denich, K. Vielhauer, M.S. de A. Kato, A. Block, O.R. Kato, T.D.de AbreuSá, W. Lücke andP.L.G.Vlek 91 Medicinalandaromaticplantsinagroforestrysystems byM.R.Rao,M.C.PaladaandB.N.Becker 107 Forestgardensasan ‘intermediate’land-usesystem inthe nature–culturecontinuum:Characteristics andfuturepotential byK.F.Wiersum 123 Theenigmaoftropicalhomegardens byB.M.KumarandP.K.R.Nair 135 BiologicalandEcologicalIssues Naturevs.nurture:managingrelationshipsbetweenforests,agroforestryandwildbiodiversity byJ.A.McNeely 155 Treedomesticationintropicalagroforestry byA.J.SimonsandR.R.B.Leakey 167 Managingbiologicalandgeneticdiversityintropicalagroforestry byK.Atta-Krah,R.Kindt,J.N.SkiltonandW.Amaral 183 WhyextensiveresearchanddevelopmentdidnotpromoteuseofpeachpalmfruitinLatinAmerica by C.R. Clement, J.C. Weber, J. van Leeuwen, C.A. Domian, D.M. Cole, L.A.A. Lopez and H. Argüello 195 Exploitingthepotentialofindigenousagroforestrytrees:ParkiabiglobosaandVitellariaparadoxain sub-SaharanAfrica byZ.Teklehaimanot 207 Ecologicalinteractions,managementlessonsanddesigntoolsintropicalagroforestrysystems byL.García-BarriosandC.K.Ong 221 Interspecificinteractionsintemperateagroforestry byS.Jose,A.R.GillespieandS.G.Pallardy 237 Ecology of tree intercropping systems in the North temperate region: Experiences from southern Ontario,Canada byN.V.ThevathasanandA.M.Gordon 257 Agroforestry as an approach to minimizing nutrient loss from heavily fertilized soils: The Florida experience byV.D.NairandD.A.Graetz 269 Carbonsequestration:Anunderexploitedenvironmentalbenefitofagroforestrysystems byF.MontagniniandP.K.R.Nair 281 Economics,Marketing,andAdoption Agroforestrydevelopment:Anenvironmentaleconomicperspective byJ.R.R.Alavalapati,R.K.Shrestha,G.A.StainbackandJ.R.Matta 299 Adoptionofagroforestryinnovationsinthetropics:Areview byD.E.Mercer 311 Scalinguptheimpactofagroforestry:LessonsfromthreesitesinAfricaandAsia byS.Franzel,G.L.Denning,J.P.B.LillesøandA.R.Mercado,Jr. 329 Treesofprosperity:Agroforestry,marketsandtheAfricansmallholder byD.RussellandS.Franzel 345 Building opportunities for small-farm agroforestry to supply domestic wood markets in developing countries byS.J.Scherr 357 MarketsandmarketingstrategiesforagroforestryspecialtyproductsinNorthAmerica byM.A.Gold,L.D.GodseyandS.J.Josiah 371 Peasants, agroforesters, and anthropologists: A 20-year venture in income-generating trees and hedgerowsinHaiti byG.F.MurrayandM.E.Bannister 383 KnowledgeIntegration Computer-basedtoolsfordecisionsupportinagroforestry:Currentstateandfutureneeds byE.A.Ellis,G.BentrupandM.M.Schoeneberger 401 AnthropogenicgrasslandsinSoutheastAsia:Sociologyofknowledgeandimplicationsforagroforestry byM.R.Dove 423 AgroforestryresearchfordevelopmentinIndia:25yearsofexperiencesofanationalprogram byS.PuriandP.K.R.Nair 437 Public/privatepartnershipsinagroforestry:theexampleofworkingtogethertoimprovecocoasustain- ability byH-YShapiroandE.M.Rosenquist 453 ListofReviewers 463 Subjectindex 465 AgroforestrySystems 61: 1,2004. PREFACE Itwasinlate2002thattheideaofpreparingacollectionofmulti-authoredchaptersondifferentaspectsofagro- forestry as a compendium for the 1st World Congress of Agroforestry, June 2004, was tossed around. With the approval of the idea by the Congress Organizing Committee, serious efforts to make it a reality got under way inearly2003.Therigorouslypeer-reviewedandeditedmanuscriptsweresubmittedtothepublisherinDecember 2003.Consideringthemanydifferentindividualsinvolvedinthetaskasauthorsandmanuscriptreviewers,wefeel quitepleasedthatthetaskcouldbeaccomplishedwithinthistimeframe. We are pleased also about the contents on several counts. First of all, the tropical-temperate mix of topics is a rare feature of a publication of this nature. In spite of the scientific commonalities between tropical and temperate practices of agroforestry, the differencesbetween them are so enormousthat it is often impossible to meshthemtogetherinonepublication.Secondly,severalofthechaptersareontopicsthathavenotbeendiscussed ordescribedmuchinagroforestryliterature.Athirdfeatureisthatsomeoftheauthors,thoughwellknownintheir owndisciplinaryareas,aresomewhatnewtoagroforestry;theperceptionsandoutlooksofthesescholarswhoare relatively uninfluencedby the past happeningsin agroforestrygives a whole new dimensionto agroforestryand broadensthescopeofthesubject.Finally,ratherthanjustreviewingandsummarizingpastwork,mostchapterstake the extraeffortinattemptingtooutlinethenextsteps. Agroforestrystandstogainenormouslyfromtheinfusion ofthesenewanddifferentideasandboldinitiatives.Thus,wefeelquitejustifiedwiththetitleofthevolume:New Vistas. The subject matter of various topics was primarily the choice of the editors, but the scope and contents of individualchaptersweremostlyoftherespectiveauthors.Werecognizethatthereareseveralothertopicsthatcan beconsideredappropriateforsuchavolume;butspace-andtimeconstraintsdidnotpermittheluxuryofinclud- ing them. Moreover, widely described and well-published topicswithin agroforestrywere keptout deliberately; preferencewasforrelativelynewsubjectswithinthecontextofagroforestry. Almost all who were identified and approachedas potential chapter authors accepted our invitation enthusi- astically. Even more importantly, they worked within the strict and tight time schedules to not only prepare the manuscripts, but also to respondto demandsfor repeated revisionsand variousotherchoresassociated with the process.Equallygratifyingwastheprompt,thorough,andprofessionalreviewsprovidedbymanuscriptreviewers (seethelistofreviewersattheendofthevolume). We sincerely thank all the authorsand reviewers, who contributedenormouslyand cooperatedso splendidly understrictanddifficulttimeschedules.SpecialthanksgotoMr.LarrySchnellforcopyeditingthemanuscripts. P.K.R.Nair,Gainesville,Florida,USA M.R.Rao,Secunderabad,India L.E.Buck,Ithaca,NewYork,USA February2004 Introduction AgroforestrySystems 61: 5–17,2004. 5 ©2004KluwerAcademicPublishers. Agroforestry and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals D.P. Garrity WorldAgroforestryCentre,UnitedNationsAvenue,P.O.Box30677–00100,Nairobi,Kenya; e-mail:[email protected] Keywords:Commercialization,Domestication,Developmentgoals,Markets,Nutrientreplenishment,Policy,Tree products Abstract TheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs)oftheUnitedNations(UN)areattheheartoftheglobaldevelopment agenda. This chapter examinesthe role of agroforestryresearch and development(R&D) in light of the MDGs. It reviews some of the ways in which agroforestry is substantively assisting to achieve the goals and discusses howtheagendacanberealignedtofurtherincreaseitseffectivenessinhelpingdevelopingcountriestomeettheir MDGtargets.Promisingagroforestrypathwaystoincreaseon-farmfoodproductionandincomecontributetothe firstMDG,whichaimstocutthenumberofhungryanddesperatelypoorbyatleasthalfby2015.Suchpathways includefertilizertreesystemsforsmallholderswith limitedaccessto adequatecropnutrients, andexpandedtree cropping and improved tree product processing and marketing. These advances can also help address lack of enterpriseopportunitiesonsmall-scalefarms,inequitablereturnstosmall-scalefarmers(especiallywomen),child malnutrition,andnationaltree-productdeficits(especiallytimber).Therateofreturntoinvestmentinresearchon tree cropsis quite high(88%); butenterprisedevelopmentandenhancementof tree-productmarketinghasbeen badlyneglected.Theproducts,processing,andmarketingoftreeproductsandservices,throughtreedomestication andthecommercializationoftheirproductsisanewfrontierforagroforestryR&D.Amajorroleforagroforestry alsoisemerginginthedomainofenvironmentalservices.Thisentailsthedevelopmentofmechanismstorewardthe ruralpoorfortheenvironmentalservicessuchaswatershedprotectionandcarbonsequestrationthattheyprovide to society. AgroforestryR&D is contributingto virtuallyall of the MDGs. Butrecognitionfor thatrole mustbe won by ensuring that more developingcountrieshave nationalagroforestrystrategies, and that agroforestryis a recognizedpartoftheirprogramstoachievetheMDGs. Introduction and action, signaling the evolution of a global deal in which sustained political and economic reform by AttheUnitedNationsMillenniumSummitinSeptem- developingcountrieswillbe matchedbygreatersup- ber 2000 in New York, world leaders agreed to a port from the developed world in the form of aid, set of time-bound and measurable goals for com- trade,debtrelief,andinvestment.TheMDGsprovide bating hunger, poverty, disease, illiteracy, environ- a framework for all nations, and the entire develop- mental degradation, and discrimination against wo- mentcommunity,toworkcoherentlytogethertoward men.TheseMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs) thiscommonend. (see Table 1) are now at the heart of the global In preparation for the August 2002 World Sum- development agenda. The Summit’s Millennium De- mit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in Johan- claration also outlined a plan for how to proceed to nesburg, South Africa, UN Secretary-General Kofi achieve the goals (www.un.org/millennium). Leaders Annan proposed the WEHAB initiative to provide from both developed and developing countries have focus and impetus to action in the five key them- started to match these commitments with resources atic areas of Water, Energy, Health, Agriculture 6 Table1. TheUnitedNationsMillenniumDevelopmentGoals. Goal 1. Eradicate extreme poverty and Targetfor2015: Halvetheproportionofpeoplelivingonlessthanadollaradayand hunger thosewhosufferfromhunger. Goal2.Achieveuniversalprimaryeduca- Targetfor2015:Ensurethatallboysandgirlscompleteprimaryschool. tion Goal3.Promotegenderequalityandem- Targets for 2005 and 2015: Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary powerwomen educationpreferablyby2005,andatalllevelsby2015. Goal4.Reducechildmortality Targetfor2015:Reducebytwothirdsthemortalityrateamongchildrenunderfive Goal5.Improvematernalhealth Targetfor2015:Reducebythree-quarterstheratioofwomendyinginchildbirth. Goal6.CombatHIV/AIDS,malariaand Targetfor2015:HaltandbegintoreversethespreadofHIV/AIDSandtheincidenceof otherdiseases malariaandothermajordiseases. Goal7.Ensureenvironmentalsustainab- Targets: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and ility programmesandreversethelossofenvironmentalresources;By2015,reducebyhalfthe proportionofpeoplewithoutaccesstosafedrinkingwater;By2020achievesignificant improvementinthelivesofatleast100millionslumdwellers. Goal8.Developaglobalpartnershipfor Targets:Developfurtheranopentradingandfinancialsystemthatincludesacommitment development togoodgovernance,developmentandpovertyreduction–nationallyandinternationally; Addresstheleastdevelopedcountries’specialneeds,andthespecialneedsoflandlocked and small island developing States; Deal comprehensively with developing countries’ debt problems; Develop decent and productive work for youth; In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access toaffordable essential drugs indeveloping countries; In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies–especiallyinformationandcommunicationstechnologies. Source:HumanDevelopmentReportbyUNDP2003 and Biodiversity. The initiative provides a coherent 3.Advance the health and nutrition of the rural poor international framework for the implementation of throughagroforestrysystems; sustainabledevelopmentsurroundingthesecrucialis- 4.Conserve biodiversity through integrated conser- sues(www.johannesburgsummit.org/html/documents/ vation-developmentsolutionsbasedonagroforestry wehab_papers.html). technologies, innovative institutions, and better Advances in agroforestry can contribute signific- policies; antlytotheachievementofvirtuallyalloftheMDGs 5.Protect watershed services through agroforestry- and the WEHAB initiative. Agroforestry focuses on basedsolutionsthatenablethepoortoberewarded the role of trees on farms and in agricultural land- fortheirprovisionoftheseservices; scapes to meet the triple bottom line of economic, 6.Assist the rural poor to better adapt to climate social and ecological needs in today’s world. Re- change, andto benefitfromemergingcarbonmar- cognition of this role in overcoming key problems kets,throughtreecultivation;and from local to global levels is growing. The World 7.Build human and institutional capacity in agro- Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) has identified seven forestryresearchanddevelopment. key challenges related to the MDGs and WEHAB This chapter examines these key components of that agroforestry science and practice can materially theagendaforagroforestryresearchanddevelopment address. in the context of the MDGs. It reviews some of the 1.Helperadicatehungerthroughbasic,pro-poorfood ways in which agroforestryis demonstrablyassisting production systems in disadvantaged areas based to achieve the goals, and discusses how the agenda on agroforestry methods of soil fertility and land shouldberealignedtofurtherincreaseeffectivenessin regeneration; helping developingcountriesto meet their MDG tar- 2.Lift more ruralpoor from poverty throughmarket- gets.Webeginbyfocusingontheachievementofthe driven, locally led tree cultivation systems that firstgoal, eradicationofextremepovertyandhunger, generateincomeandbuildassets; wheretheroleofagroforestryishighlyevident.