New Uses of Ion Accelerators

482 Pages·1975·4.19 MB·English

by  Thomas A. Cahill

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library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Main entry under title:
New uses of ion accelerators.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Ion bombardment. 2. X-rays-Industrial applications. 3. Ma
terials-Analysis.4. Ion accelerators. I. Ziegler, James F.
aC702.3.N48 539.7'3 75·16315
ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-2171-2 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4684-2169-9
001: 10.1007/978-1-4684-2169-9
© 1975 Plenum Press, New York
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1975
A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation
227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011
United Kingdom edition published by Plenum Press, London
A Division of Plenum Publishing Company, Ltd.
Davis House (4th Floorl, 8 Scrubs Lane, Harlesden, London, NW10 6SE, England
All rights reserved
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher
PREFACE
The use of ion accelerators for purposes other than nuclear
physics research has expanded to the point where lother usesl are
now the most typical. The point has been reached where there are
as many ion accelerators in industry, as in universities; and the
bulk of new accelerator purchases appears to be for applied pur
poses.
We mention this as introduction to a tribute to an earlier
book: IINew Uses of Low Energy Accelerators" (1968). The authors
of tnis book were almost all nuclear physicists. This book ad
dressed itself to new uses other than nuclear research. And in
great part because of the widespread seminal influence of this
book, many of the new uses discussed became mature fields of re
search with their own conferences and publications.
We have attempted in this book to both update with topics
not included in the first book, and to present in a more tutorial
and detailed manner the topics discussed.
This book is in many ways a joint book. All chapters were
the result of considerable collaboration between the authors. We
hope that, above all, we have written with clarity. We welcome
comments and questions from any reader.
James F. Ziegler
IBM-Research
v
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1. Ion-Excited X-Ray Analysis of
Environmental Samples
Thomas A. Cahill
I. Introduction .......•......
II. General Considerations for Ion Beam
Analysis of Environmental Samples 2
III. Formalism and Optimization •..... 4
IV. The UCD/ARB Aerosol Analysis System 13
A. The Primary Ion Beam . . . . . . 15
B. Detection of X-Rays . . . . . . . 22
C. Data Acquisition and Reduction •.. 32
D. System Calibration .......•. 45
E. Target Preparation and Matrix Effects 49
F. Estimation of Analytical Costs. 57
G. Validation of System Operations 59
V. Ion-Excited X-Ray Analysis Programs 63
Appendix (Forward Scattering) 64
Acknowledgments 64
References . . 65
Bibliography. 67
CHAPTER 2: Material Analysis by Nuclear
Backscattering 75
A. Introduction............ 75
James F. Ziegler
General Comments on Nuclear Backscattering 94
Appendix (Numerical Examples) 99
References . 102
B. Applications 105
J. W. Mayer
I. Introduction 105
vii
viii CONTENTS
II. Ion Implantation . . . • . . . . . • . . . 112
III. Thin Films: Growth and Deposition ... 116
IV. Thin Film Reactions: Interdiffusion and
Compound Formation . . . 121
V. Bulk Effects: Composition, Diffusion
and Solubility 126
VI. Concluding Remarks 130
Acknowledgments 131
References . . 131
C. Formalism .... 135
Wei-Kan Chu
1. Three Basic Concepts in Backscattering 135
A. Backscattering Kinematic Factor Mass
~
Ana 1y s is. . . . • . . • . • 135
B. Differential Scattering Cross
Section Quantitative Analysis . 136
~
C. Energy Loss ~ Depth Analysis .•••• 137
2. Depth Scale in Backscattering Analysis [S] • 138
A. Depth Scale in Backscattering Analysis • 138
B. Surface Approximation . . . . . . 139
C. Linear Approximation ...... . 142
3. Height of an Energy Spectrum •..•• 143
A. Surface Approximation for Spectrum
Height ......•. 143
B. Thick Target Yield .•...•••. 144
C. Backscattering Yield of a Thin Film ...•. 146
4. Applications of Backscattering from
Elemental Targets . . • . • • • . 147
A. Surface Contamination and Ion Implantation 147
B. Doping Level of a Bulk Sample ... 148
C. Film Thickness Measurement and
dE/dx Measurements • . . . . 150
D. Yield Formula and dE/dx Measurements . 150
E. Differential Scattering Cross Section
Measurement . . . . . . . . . 151
5. Application of Backscattering to Compound
Targets • . . . . . . . 151
A. Thin Film Analysis ....... . 152
B. Thick Compound Targets ...... . 154
C. Analysis on Composition Varying
Continuously with Depth • 154
Appendix 1. Notations ....... . 155
Appendix 2. Formulae ........•. 155
Appendix 3. Sources for dE/dx Information 157
References • 158
CONTENTS ix
CHAPTER 3: Material Analysis by Means of
Nuclear Reactions 159
Eligius A. Wolicki
Introduction . . . . . . • • .. 159
Charged Particle Activation Analysis .. 166
Charged Particle Activation Analysis -
Examples •• . • • • • • 171
Prompt Radiation Analysis •••.••• 176
Nonresonant Nuclear Reactions - Gamma
Rays Observed . • . . . 179
Nonresonant Nuclear Reactions - Nuclear
Particles Observed 188
Resonant Nuclear Reactions •. 210
Summary . . . . • • • • 222
Acknowledgment • • . . .• 224
References . • • • . . . . 224
CHAPTER 4: Lattice Location of Impurities in
Metals and Semiconductors 229
S. T. Picraux
. . .
I. Introduction • · · · 229
II. Impurity Detection • · · · 231
III. The Channeling Technique. 233
. . .
1. Channeling Concept. · · 233
2. Experimental Technique . · · · · · 236
. . . .
IV. Lattice Location Analysis · · · · 240
. . . . . .
V. Examples • · · · · 245
.
1. Substitutional Impurities · · · · · · 245
2. Nearly Substitutional Impurities . 250
3. Interstitial Impurities · · · · · 254
. .
4. High Impurity Concentrations . · · · · 259
5. Radiation-Induced Change in Impurity Sites . 260
VI. Summary of the Literature on Channeling
Lattice Location Data 263
VII. Limitations 264
VIII. Conclusions 266
.
References . 273
CHAPTER 5: Ion Implantation in Metals 283
G. Dearna1ey
Introduction • • • . . . 283
Historical Perspective 284
Friction and Wear . . 286
x CONTENTS
Corrosion .. . . . • . • . . 295
1. Oxides with Anion Defects 295
2. Oxides with Cation Defects • 296
Ion Backscattering . . . . . 296
Titanium and Stainless Steel 298
Zirconium ..... . 302
A1 u mi num . . . . . . . . . . • 307
Copper . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Aqueous Corrosion • . . . . . . . 309
Practical Applications in Corrosion 310
Electrochemistry and Catalysis .. 312
Implantation Metallurgy .•.•. 314
Equipment for the Ion Implantation
of Metals 315
Conclusions . . . . . 318
References . . . . . . 319
CHAPTER 6: Ion Implantation in Superconductors 323
O. Meyer
I ntroducti on . . • . • . . . . • . • 323
Definition of the Superconducting
Parameters . . . • . 324
Influence of Radiation Damage on the
Superconducting Properties 326
a. Non-Transition Metals .. . . . • . . • 327
b. Transition Metals .•. . . . . 328
c. Transition Metal Alloys . . . . • 330
d. Superconductors with A-15 and
NaC1-Structure . . . . . . . 331
e. Transition Metal Layer Compounds . . . 333
f. Quantitative Estimation of Damage in
Superconductors . . . . . . 334
Influence of Implanted Ions on the
Superconducting Transition
Temperature . . • . . . . . 336
a. Magnetic Impurities in Non Transition
Meta 1s . . . . . . . . . • • 337
b. Pd-, Pd-Nob1e Metal Alloy,
-Hydrogen System • . . . . • 337
c. Ion Implanted Transition Metal Systems . 339
d. Aluminum Based Ion Implanted Systems . 345
Application to Superconducting Devices 348
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
References • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER 7: Ion-Induced X-Rays from Gas Collisions 355
W. W. Smith and Q. C. Kessel
1. Introduction ....... . 355
2. Collision Models ..... . 358
2.1. Survey of Models . • . . 358
2.2. Coulomb Ionization .... 360
2.3. The Molecular-Orbital Model .. 367
3. Measurements of Inner-Shell Excitations 375
3.1. Introduction .......... . 375
3.2. Theory of Energy-Loss Measurements. 377
3.3. X-Ray and Electron Emission ... 385
3.4. Typical Apparatus-Ionization and
Inelastic Energy Loss . 388
3.5. Scattered-Ion--X-RaY/E1ectron
Coincidence Apparatus 393
4. Discussion of Typical Data ..... 395
4.1. Ionization States ..••.. 395
4.2. Inelastic Energy Loss .•.•. 397
4.3. Electron Emission Cross Sections. 400
4.4. Fluorescence Yield Effects ....• 405
4.5. X-Ray--Scattered-Ion Coincidence Data 407
4.6. X-Rays from Highly Stripped Fast
Ion Beams 416
5. Summary . . 421
References . 422
CHAPTER 8: Ion-Induced X-Rays in Solids 431
J. A. Cairns and L. C. Feldman
1. Introduction .•...•.... 431
2. Accelerators and Target Chambers 432
2.1. Ion Sources ...... . 432
2.2. Target Chambers ...... . 432
3. The Detection and Analysis of X-Rays . 437
3.1. The Gas Flow Proportional Counter 438
3.2. The Si(Li) Detector ...... . 442
3.3. The X-Ray Crystal or Grating
Spectrometer . . . . . . • . . 442
4. The Use of Protons and Helium Ions to Generate
X-Rays from Solid Targets .. 444
4.1. Current Areas of Fundamental Interest 447
4.2. Applications .......... . 448
5. The Use of Heavy Ions to Generate X-Rays
from Solid Targets 453
5.1. General Background ....... . 453
5.2. Physical Processes •....... 454