New Trends in Emission Control in the European Union

175 Pages·2014·20.438 MB·English

by  Jerzy Merkisz, Jacek Pielecha, Stanisław Radzimirski (auth.)

Springer Tracts on Transportation and Traffic STTT
Jerzy Merkisz
Jacek Pielecha
Stanislaw Radzimirski
New Trends in
Emission Control
in the European
Union
123
Springer Tracts on Transportation and Traffic
Volume 4
SeriesEditor
RogerP.Roess,NewYork,USA
Forfurthervolumes:
http://www.springer.com/series/11059
·
Jerzy Merkisz Jacek Pielecha
Stanislaw Radzimirski
New Trends in Emission
Control in the European
Union
ABC
JerzyMerkisz StanislawRadzimirski
InstituteofCombustionEnginesand MotorTransportInstitute
Transport Warsaw
PoznanUniversityofTechnology Poland
Poznan
Poland
JacekPielecha
InstituteofCombustionEnginesand
Transport
PoznanUniversityofTechnology
Poznan
Poland
ISSN2194-8119 ISSN2194-8127 (electronic)
ISBN978-3-319-02704-3 ISBN978-3-319-02705-0 (eBook)
DOI10.1007/978-3-319-02705-0
SpringerChamHeidelbergNewYorkDordrechtLondon
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2013950408
(cid:2)c SpringerInternationalPublishingSwitzerland2014
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Contents
1 Introduction ............................................................................................ 1
References ................................................................................................ 8
2 Structure and Applicability of Regulations .......................................... 9
2.1 Structure of Regulations .................................................................. 9
2.2 Classification of Vehicles as Light-Duty and Heavy-Duty ............. 13
References ................................................................................................ 15
3 Type Approval of Light-Duty Vehicles in Terms of Emission of
Pollutants ................................................................................................. 19
3.1 Principles of Type Approval ........................................................... 19
3.2 Type I Test ...................................................................................... 26
3.2.1 Limit Values ....................................................................... 26
3.2.2 Measurement Method and Test Equipment ........................ 39
3.3 Other Tests ...................................................................................... 54
3.4 Approval Extension ......................................................................... 61
References ................................................................................................ 63
4 Type Approval of Heavy-Duty Vehicles for Emission of
Pollutants ................................................................................................ 67
4.1 Scope of Application and Rules of Type Approval ......................... 67
4.2 Steady State Test and Transient Test .............................................. 70
4.2.1 Operation Cycles and Prescribed Limits ............................. 70
4.2.2 Measurement Method and Test Equipment ......................... 78
4.3 Verification of Off-Cycle Emissions ............................................... 83
4.4 Durability of Pollution Control Devices ......................................... 85
4.5 OBD Testing ................................................................................... 86
4.6 Other Tests ...................................................................................... 87
References ................................................................................................ 89
5 Production and In-Service Conformity ................................................ 91
5.1 Verification of Production Conformity ........................................... 91
5.2 Verification of In-Service Conformity ............................................ 91
VI Contents

5.3 Method for Determining Averaging Windows with the Use
of Reference Work .......................................................................... 94
5.4 Method for Determining Averaging Windows with the Use
of Reference Carbon Dioxide Mass ................................................ 95
References ................................................................................................ 97
6 Measurements of Exhaust Emissions In-use Conditions..................... 99
6.1 Testing Possibilities ........................................................................ 99
6.2 Tests of Passenger Cars Fitted with Different Propulsion
Systems ........................................................................................... 101
6.2.1 Conventional Drive Vehicles .............................................. 101
6.2.2 Vehicles Fitted with Start/Stop Systems ............................. 112
6.2.3 Hybrid Vehicles .................................................................. 121
6.3 Tests of Heavy-Duty Vehicles ........................................................ 123
6.4 Tests of City Buses.......................................................................... 130
6.5 Tests of Non-road Vehicles ............................................................. 134
6.5.1 Pick-Up Trucks and Tractors ............................................. 134
6.5.2 Farming and Construction Machines.................................. 136
6.5.3 Rail Vehicles ...................................................................... 141
6.5.4 Special-Purpose Vehicles ................................................... 148
References ................................................................................................ 160
7 Conclusions ............................................................................................. 161
References ................................................................................................ 169
Key Acronyms
ANR all new registrations
CARB California Air Resources Board
CI compression ignition
CNC condensation nuclei counter
CNG compressed natural gas
CVS constant-volume sampling
DI direct injection
DISI direct injection spark ignition
DPF diesel particulate filter
EC European Community
EEC European Economic Community (currently EU = Euro-
pean Union)
EEV enhanced environmentally friendly vehicle
ECE Economic Commission for Europe
ESC European steady-state cycle
ETC European transient cycle
EU European Union
EUDC extra-urban drive cycle
Euro pollutant emission standards in Europe
FTP Federal Test Procedure
GDI gasoline direct injection
GHG greenhouse gas
GTR global technical regulation
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LPG liquefied petroleum gas
MLM maximum laden mass
MPI multi-point injection
NEDC New European Driving Cycle
NG natural gas
NMHC non-methane hydrocarbons
NO nitrogen oxides
X
NTA new type approvals
OBD on-board diagnostic
VIII KeyAcronyms

PEMS portable emission measurement system
PM particulate matter
PN particle number
RM reference mass
SCR selective catalytic reduction
SI spark ignition
SMPS scanning mobility particle sizer
TC turbocharged
THC total hydrocarbons
UDC urban drive cycle
UN United Nations
WHO World Health Organization
WHSC world harmonized steady-state cycle
WHTS world harmonized transient cycle
Chapter 1
Introduction
The need to reduce negative environmental impacts has become the key factor in
the development of techniques and technologies in all industries. The use and de-
velopment of advanced technologies involve constant verification of the existing
conditions of human and machine labor and the consequences of its environmental
impacts. Transport is considered to be one of the most rapidly changing industries,
first and foremost because of reducing hazardous emissions.
Apart from improving the classic propulsion (internal combustion engine), re-
search works are underway to develop alternative power train systems. However,
on the basis of the existing analyses one can assume that internal combustion
engines will continue to prevail until 2030 (Fig. 1.1). There are currently around
700 million vehicles owned throughout the world, which is predicted to increase
to approximately 2.0 billion by 2050 (Fig. 1.2). The developed markets such as
Europe, North America and Japan are expected to reach saturation in the near fu-
ture, because these countries enter a period of population decline.
However, the global vehicle fleet is expected to increase through the rapid eco-
nomic growth with the progress of automotive industry in emerging markets, such

Fig. 1.1 Expected global passenger car structure by 2030, according to Obsidian Energy
Company [2]

J. Merkisz, J. Pielecha, and S. Radzimirski, New Trends in Emission Control in the 1
European Union, Springer Tracts on Transportation and Traffic 4,
DO I: 10.1007/978-3-319-02705-0_1, © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
2 1 Introductioon
as China, India, Brazil, ettc. In 2030, the total vehicle ownership in these nations is
predicted to exceed that inn the developed nations [3].
The emission of (gaseoous) toxic compounds and carbon dioxide as well as paar-
ticulate matter continues to be a major threat, constituting an obstacle to the dee-
velopment of contemporaary internal combustion engines, especially compressioon
and spark ignition engines with direct injection. Euro 6 standard is a major changge
for vehicle manufacturerss, as it requires reducing gaseous compounds and particuu-
late matter emissions too levels far below the current ones (Fig. 1.3). Newlly
implemented technical and operating regulations may cause both positive annd
negative consequences. WWell designed regulations should affect the natural envvi-
ronment in a positive waay, but the nature of that influence also depends on thhe
perspective taken when tthe influence is assessed. Positive effects of the regula-
tions are particularly well visible in terms of the change in pollution limits.

Fig. 1.2 Expected global numbber of vehicles by 2050 [8]
The main issues faced by the internal combustion engine in the future includde
reducing atmospheric polllution and adapting to the diversification of fuels. Paar-
tially due to stringent reggulations, vehicle emissions are already cleaner than thhe
surrounding air in some uurban environments. However, further efforts are planneed
to reduce the emissions (tthat including the reduction of gases that contribute to thhe
greenhouse effect). Toyotta intends to improve the thermal efficiency of engines aas
much as possible to reducce CO emissions to the same level as current HVs (Fig.
2
1.4). This technology cann then be combined with hybrid technology to achievve
both excellent dynamic peerformance and fuel efficiency.
CO reduction becomees increasingly important. When CO emission is calcuu-
2 2
lated per passenger, coucches buses generate the lowest amount, while passengeer
planes generate the higheest one (Fig. 1.5). CO emission from passenger cars at a
2