'NEW EMERGING FORCES' IN INDONESIAN FOREIGN POLICY by JR Angel VOLUME II Thesis ...

363 Pages·2016·25.97 MB·English

THE 'NEW EMERGING FORCES' IN
INDONESIAN FOREIGN POLICY
by
J. R. Angel
VOLUME II
Thesis submitted for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in the Australian
National University, February, 1970
ii
CONTENTS
VOLUME I
Acknowledgements iii
List of Abbreviations xv
List of Figures xviii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION 2
1. THE SUBJECT OF THIS STUDY 2
2. METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 11
(a) The Approach adopted 11
(b) Setting Limits to the Scope of the Thesis 16
(c) Problems of Generalisation and
Interpretation 19
(d) Sources 21
3. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE NEFO IDEOLOGY AND
INDONESIAN FOREIGN POLICY: A GENERAL STATEMENT 22
(a) NEFO Ideology-Indonesian Foreign Policy of
the Era of Confrontation 23
(b) Ideology of the Indonesian Revolution -
NEFO Ideology 24
(c) Indonesian Foreign Policy - Era of
Confrontation 26
(d) Ideology of the Indonesian Revolution -
Indonesian Foreign Policy 27
(e) Ideology of the Indonesian Revolution -
Domestic Developments - International
Developments - Indonesian Foreign Policy 28
iii
(f) NEFO Ideology - Indonesian Foreign Policy
of the Era of Confrontation - Ideology of
the Indonesian Revolution - Indonesian
Foreign Policy 35
(g) NEFO Ideology - Indonesian Foreign Policy
of the Era of Confrontation - Domestic
Developments - International Developments 38
(h) The Total Pattern of Relationships 40
(i) Implications of these Relationships 40
CHAPTER II
THE INDONESIAN REVOLUTION: BACKGROUND TO INDONESIAN
FOREIGN POLICY AND THE IDEOLOGICAL CONTEXT OF THE
NEW EMERGING FORCES IDEOLOGY 52
A. THE INDONESIAN REVOLUTION: THE HISTORICAL
PHENOMENON AND THE IDEOLOGICAL CONCEPT 53
B. THE NATURE, OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES OF THE
INDONESIAN REVOLUTION 62
1. ELUSIVENESS 62
2. THE STRUGGLE AND BASIC REVOLUTIONARY CONCEPTS 69
(a) Positive and negative Goals 70
(b) Origins of the Struggle 73
(c) The broad Unity of Purpose 76
(d) Principles, Principles of Struggle and
Tactics: early Expositions 79
(i) Levels of the Struggle 79
(ii) Principles - Nationalism and
Socio-Nationalism 80
- Marhaenism 81
- Socio-Democracy 84
iv
(iii) Principles of Struggle 85
- Non-Cooperation 86
- Power-Forming 88
- Mass Action 93
(e) Marxist or Marxist-influenced Concepts 98
(i) Dialectics and Historical Materialism 99
(ii) Antithesis 103
(iii) Radicalism 111
(iv) Revolutionary Leadership and Victory 116
(f) Summary 128
3. THE 1945 CONSTITUTION AND PANTJA SILA 129
(a) The 1945 Constitution 130
(b) Pantja Sila 131
4. MANIPOL - USDEK 137
5. SUBSEQUENT FORMULATIONS 142
6. DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS DEPICTING DOMESTIC
ASPECTS OF THE REVOLUTION 145
(a) Nationalism - National Identity -
Trisakti 145
(b) Democracy - Guided Democracy 148
(c) Social Justice - Indonesian Socialism -
Guided Economy - Berdikari 152
(d) Unity - Re-So-Pim - NASAKOM 159
7. DEVELOPMENT OF CONCEPTS DEPICTING INTER­
NATIONAL OR UNIVERSAL ASPECTS OF THE
REVOLUTION 173
(a) International Means to Domestic Ends 178
(i) Offensive Means 179
(ii) Alliance of Nations 184
(iii) Defensive Means 187
(b) International Struggle as a Matter of
Principle 190
(i) The Indonesian Revolution, the
Fundamental Antithesis and the
Revolution of Mankind 191
(ii) Pantja Sila and the International
Aspects of the Indonesian Revolution 207
(iii) Anti-Imperialism and the International
Aspects of the Indonesian Revolution 219
8. SUMMARY: THE INDONESIAN REVOLUTION 221
CHAPTER III
INDONESIAN FOREIGN POLICY: INDONESIA’S ROLE IN
WORLD AFFAIRS 229
A. SOME IMPORTANT TERMS AND DISTINCTIONS 230
1. FOREIGN POLICY 230
(a) Declared/Operative: Theoretical/Actual
Foreign Policy 232
(b) General/Specific Foreign Policy 234
(c) Long-Term/Short-Term: Permanent/Temporary
Foreign Policy 235
(d) Basic Foreign Policy and Deviations 237
(e) Relationship between the above Distinctions 237
(f) The Pattern and the Trend 239
2. FOREIGN POLICY INTERESTS, OBJECTIVES AND
PRINCIPLES 241
vi
(a) Interests and Objectives 242
(b) Principles 243
3. IDEOLOGY 252
4. DETERMINANTS 254
B. FEATURES OF INDONESIAN FOREIGN POLICY: AN
OVERVIEW 259
1. DECLARED INDONESIAN FOREIGN POLICY 264
(a) The Original Source for Declared
Indonesian Foreign Policy 266
(b) Interpretations and Elaborations:
Recurring Themes 268
(i) Indonesian Foreign Policy as an
Instrument of the Indonesian
Revolution 271
(ii) Pantja Sila as the Basis of
Indonesian Foreign Policy 273
(iii) Anti-imperialism 275
(iv) Independent, Active Foreign Policy 281
(v) Good Neighbour Policy 292
(vi) National Interest 297
(c) Characteristics of Declared Indonesian
Foreign Policy 304
(i) Generalities 304
(ii) Permanence and Unchangeability 305
(iii) Consensus 307
(iv) Harmonious and complementary
Relationship 307
(v) Flexibility 309
vii
(d) Problems arising at the level of subsidiary
Interpretation and Application 311
U) Disharmony and Competition 311
(Ü) Loss of Consensus 313
(ixi) The Anomaly of unchanging declared
Policy and changing operative Policy 315
(e) The Significance of Declared Indonesian
Foreign Policy 316
OPERATIVE INDONESIAN FOREIGN POLICY 323
(a) The Pattern of Operative Indonesian Foreign
Policy: Some Interpretations 324
(b) The Phase Interpretation 325
(i) 1945 - 19^9: The Physical Struggle
for Independence 328
- Domestic Background to Foreign
Policy 328
- Foreign Policy 336
(Ü) 1950 - 1959: The Liberal Democratic
Period 345
- Domestic Background to Foreign
Policy
345
- Foreign Policy: 1950 - 1959 380
1950 - 1953 382
1953 - 1957 395
1957 - 1959 422
VOLUME II
(iü) 1959 - 1965: The Period of Guided
Democracy
437
viii
- Domestic Background to Foreign
Policy 437
- Foreign Policy: 1959 - 1965 486
1959 - 1962 490
West Irian 490
The Third World 499
The Drift to the Left 508
1962 - 1965 514
The pragmatic, pro-western
Interlude 516
Confrontation of Malaysia 526
The Third World 547
Development of the Axis with
Peking 560
Indonesia's Isolation 573
(iv) Post-1965 Reversals 579
(v) Summary 581
(c) Other Interpretations 582
(i) Variations on the Phase 582
Interpretation
(ii) The Thematic Interpretation 585
(iii) Basic Indonesian Foreign Policy and
Deviations 589
(d) The Trend 591
3. GENERAL DETERMINANTS OF INDONESIAN FOREIGN
POLICY 597
(a) The Indonesian Experience and History 598
(b) Ideology 602
(c) The Influence of Domestic Politics 604
(d) Problems, Diversions and Frustrations 613
(e) Responses to International Developments 616
(f) Indonesian Expansionism 619
ix
CHAPTER IV
THE NEW EMERGING FORCES IDEOLOGY IN THEORY AND
PRACTICE: THE CULMINATION 626
A. TERMINOLOGY 627
1. THE NEFO THEORY, IDEOLOGY, CONCEPT AND
CONCEPTS 629
2. THE NEFO, THE OLDEFO AND DERIVATIVE TERMS 631
B. FEATURES OF THE NEFO IDEOLOGY: IN THEORY 635
1. THE NEFO DOCTRINES AS AN IDEOLOGY 635
(a) The Ideology in General 635
(b) The Element of Description and the New
Emerging Forces Theory 635
(c) The Element expressing Aspirations 637
(d) The Element of Advocacy 638
(e) The Element of Prophecy 640
(f) The Significance of the NEFO Ideology 641
2. THE EVOLUTION OF THE NEFO IDEOLOGY 642
(a) Sukarno's Importance in the Formulation
of the NEFO Ideology 643
(b) NEFO Origins in the Ideology of the
Indonesian Revolution 645
(c) Changing Views of the World 651
(d) The Definition of the NEFO and the OLDEFO 658
(e) The Development of a dinstinctive NEFO
Ideology 670
(f) Related Developments in Indonesian Ideology 672
X
672
C. FEATURES OF THE NEFO IDEOLOGY IN PRACTICE 676
1. PROSELYTISING ACTIVITIES 677
2. ATTEMPTS TO CREATE A NEFO MOVEMENT 679
3. UNCTAD: THE ALTERNATIVE 688
4. THE PEKING AXIS: THE VANGUARD OF THE NEFO 692
5. MERTJUSUAR: THE INDONESIAN EXAMPLE 695
BIBLIOGRAPHY
(a) Works by Sukarno 696
(b) Official Publications 698
(c) Books 704
(d) Articles 711
APPENDICES
A. PREAMBLE OF THE 1945 CONSTITUTION Al
B. REAFFIRMATION OF THE BASIS OF INDONESIAN
FOREIGN POLICY, 1966 B1
C. CABINETS 1945-1959 Cl
D. THE SUKARNO - ARMY - PKI RELATIONSHIP UNDER
GUIDED DEMOCRACY Dl