Neutrons and synchrotron radiation in engineering materials science : from fundamentals to applications

464 Pages·2017·19.834 MB·English

by  Clemens, Helmut, Mayer, Svea, Schreyer, Andreas, Staron, Peter

NeutronsandSynchrotronRadiation
inEngineeringMaterialsScience
Neutrons and Synchrotron Radiation
in Engineering Materials Science
FromFundamentalstoApplications
EditedbyPeterStaron,AndreasSchreyer,HelmutClemens,and
SveaMayer
SecondEdition
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v
Contents
ListofContributor XVII
PrefacetoSecondEdition XXIII
PartI General 1
1 MicrostructureandPropertiesofEngineeringMaterials 3
HelmutClemens,SveaMayer,andChristinaScheu
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Microstructure 4
1.2.1 CrystalDefects 7
1.2.2 Grain(Phase)BoundariesandTwins 7
1.2.3 PrecipitatesandDispersions 8
1.3 MicrostructureandProperties 10
1.4 MicrostructuralCharacterization 12
References 19
2 InternalStressesinEngineeringMaterials 21
AnkeKaysser-Pyzalla
2.1 Definition 21
2.1.1 StressTensor,StrainTensor,andElasticityTensor 21
2.1.1.1 StressTensor 21
2.1.1.2 StrainTensor 22
2.1.2 Definitions,ResidualStresses 23
2.1.2.1 StressEquilibrium 23
2.1.2.2 ResidualMacro-andMicrostresses 24
2.2 OriginofResidualMacro-andMicrostresses 25
2.2.1 ResidualStressFormationinPrimaryFormingProcesses 26
2.2.2 ResidualStressFormationinHeatTreatmentProcesses 28
2.2.2.1 ResidualStressesinaMaterialwithoutPhaseTransformation(PureCooling
ResidualStresses) 29
2.2.2.2 ResidualStressesinaMaterialwithPhaseTransformation 30
2.2.2.3 ResidualStressFormationinSurface-HardeningProcesses(Nitriding,
Carbo-Nitriding,andCaseHardening) 32
2.2.3 ResidualStressFormationinFormingProcesses 32
vi Contents
2.2.3.1 Deep-RollingResidualStresses 33
2.2.3.2 ColdExtrusionResidualStresses 34
2.2.4 ResidualStressFormationinMetalCuttingManufacturing 36
2.2.4.1 GrindingResidualStresses 37
2.2.5 ResidualStressFormationinJoiningProcesses 39
2.2.6 ResidualStressFormationinCoatings 43
2.3 Relevance 45
2.3.1 FailureduetoResidualStressFormationorResidualStressReliefInducedby
TemperatureChanges 46
2.3.2 InfluenceofResidualStressesonComponentFailureunderStaticand
DynamicMechanicalLoads 47
2.3.3 InfluenceofResidualStressesonComponentFailureinCorrosive
Environments 49
2.3.4 InfluenceofResidualStressesonWear 49
References 51
3 TexturesinEngineeringMaterials 55
HeinzG.BrokmeierandSangbongYi
3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 MeasurementofPreferredOrientations 58
3.3 PresentationofPreferredOrientations 59
3.3.1 PoleFigure 60
3.3.2 OrientationDistributionFunction 62
3.3.3 InversePoleFigures 62
3.4 InterpretationofTextures 62
3.5 Errors 67
3.5.1 GrainStatistics 67
3.5.2 PoleFigureCoverage 68
References 71
4 PhysicalPropertiesofPhotonsandNeutrons 73
AndreasSchreyer
4.1 Introduction 73
4.2 InteractionofX-rayPhotonsandNeutronswithIndividualAtoms 74
4.2.1 Neutrons 75
4.2.2 X-rays 76
4.3 ScatteringofX-rayPhotonsandNeutronsfromEnsemblesofAtoms 79
Acknowledgment 81
References 81
5 RadiationSources 83
5.1 GenerationandPropertiesofNeutrons 83
InaLommatzsch,WolfgangKnop,PhilippK.Pranzas,andPeterSchreiner
5.1.1 Introduction 83
5.1.2 GenerationofNeutrons 83
5.1.2.1 ResearchReactors 83
5.1.2.2 SpallationSources 87
Contents vii
5.1.3 Instrumentation 87
5.1.3.1 StructureResearch 89
5.1.3.2 Large-ScaleStructures 89
5.1.3.3 Spectroscopy 89
5.1.3.4 ImagingandAnalysis 89
5.1.3.5 ParticlePhysics 89
References 90
5.2 ProductionandPropertiesofSynchrotronRadiation 90
RolfTreusch
5.2.1 Introduction 90
5.2.2 PropertiesofSynchrotronRadiation 92
5.2.3 SourcesofSynchrotronRadiation 96
5.2.3.1 BendingMagnets 97
5.2.3.2 WigglersandUndulators 98
5.2.4 Outlook:FreeElectronLasers 100
5.2.5 Summary 102
References 102
PartII Methods 105
6 StressAnalysisbyAngle-DispersiveNeutronDiffraction 107
PeterStaron
6.1 Introduction 107
6.2 DiffractometerforResidualStressAnalysis 108
6.2.1 SetupofaDiffractometerforStrainScanning 108
6.2.2 Monochromator 109
6.2.3 SlitSystem 110
6.2.4 SamplePositioning 111
6.2.5 Detector 111
6.3 MeasurementandDataAnalysis 112
6.3.1 GageVolumeandSamplePositioning 112
6.3.2 DataReductionandAnalysis 113
6.3.2.1 DataReductionandPeakFitting 113
6.3.2.2 CalculationofStresses 114
6.3.2.3 MacroandMicrostresses 115
6.3.2.4 Stress-FreeReference 116
6.4 Examples 116
6.4.1 ResidualStressesinFrictionStirWeldedAluminumSheets 116
6.4.2 ResidualStressesinWater-QuenchedTurbineDisks 117
6.5 SummaryandOutlook 120
References 120
7 StressAnalysisbyEnergy-DispersiveNeutronDiffraction 123
JavierSantisteban
7.1 Introduction 123
7.2 Time-of-FlightNeutronDiffraction 123
viii Contents
7.2.1 TOFPeakShapeandDataAnalysisPackages 124
7.3 TOFStrainScanners 126
7.3.1 CountingTimesandResolution 128
7.3.2 NeutronOpticsandTimeFocusing 130
7.4 AVirtualLaboratoryforStrainScanning 131
7.5 TypeIIStresses:EvolutionofIntergranularStresses 134
7.6 TypeIIIStresses:DislocationDensities 135
7.7 StrainImagingbyEnergy-DispersiveNeutronTransmission 138
7.8 Conclusions 140
Acknowledgments 141
References 141
8 ResidualStressAnalysisbyMonochromaticHigh-EnergyX-rays 145
RenéV.Martins
8.1 BasicSetups 145
8.2 PrincipleofSlitImagingandDataReconstruction 148
8.3 TheConicalSlit 149
8.3.1 WorkingPrinciple 149
8.3.2 Capabilities 149
8.3.3 Example 151
8.4 TheSpiralSlit 152
8.4.1 FunctionalPrinciple 152
8.4.2 Capabilities 152
8.4.3 Example 153
8.5 SimultaneousStrainMeasurementsinIndividualBulkGrains 155
8.6 CoarseGrainEffects 156
8.7 AnalysisofDiffractionDatafromAreaDetectors 157
8.8 MatrixforComparisonandDecisionTakingWhichTechniquetoUsefora
SpecificProblem 158
References 159
9 ResidualStressAnalysisbyEnergy-DispersiveSynchrotronX-ray
Diffraction 161
ChristophGenzelandManuelaKlaus
9.1 Introduction 161
9.2 FundamentalsofEnergy-DispersiveX-rayDiffractionStressAnalysis 162
9.2.1 TheBasicEquationofEnergy-DispersiveX-rayDiffraction 162
9.2.2 Near-SurfaceDepthProfilingintheEnergy-DispersiveDiffraction
Mode 162
9.2.3 PrinciplesofDepth-ResolvedX-rayStressAnalysisandApplicationtothe
Energy-DispersiveCaseofDiffraction 164
9.3 ExperimentalSetup 167
9.4 ExamplesforEnergy-DispersiveStressAnalysis 168
9.4.1 NearSurfaceResidualStressDepthProfiling 168
9.4.2 FastInsituStressAnalysisbyMeansofEnergy-DispersiveDiffraction 171
9.5 FinalRemarks 173
References 175
Contents ix
10 TextureAnalysesbySynchrotronX-raysandNeutrons 179
SangbongYi,WeiminGan,andHeinzG.Brokmeier
10.1 TextureMeasurementsonLaboratoryScale 179
10.1.1 X-rayDiffraction 179
10.1.2 ElectronDiffraction 181
10.2 TextureMeasurementsatLargeScaleFacilities 182
10.2.1 NeutronDiffraction 182
10.2.2 TextureAnalysisUsingSynchrotronX-rays 185
10.2.3 ExamplesofTextureAnalysesUsingNeutrons
andSynchrotronX-rays 189
10.2.3.1 LocalTextureMeasurementofaFrictionWeldedRod 189
10.2.3.2 GlobalTextureinCuWire 190
10.2.3.3 InsituTextureMeasurementofSteelatElevatedTemperature 191
10.2.3.4 InsituTextureMeasurementunderLoading 192
10.3 Conclusion 193
References 194
11 BasicsofSmall-AngleScatteringMethods 197
PhilippK.Pranzas
11.1 Introduction 197
11.2 CommonFeaturesofaSASInstrument 197
11.3 Contrast 198
11.4 ScatteringCurve 198
11.5 PowerLaw/ScatteringbyFractalSystems 200
11.6 GuinierandPorodApproximations 201
11.7 MacroscopicDifferentialScatteringCross-section 202
11.8 ModelCalculationofSizeDistributions 202
11.9 MagneticStructures 203
References 204
12 Small-AngleNeutronScattering 207
PhilippK.PranzasandAndréHeinemann
12.1 Introduction 207
12.2 NanocrystallineMagnesiumHydridefortheReversibleStorageof
Hydrogen 208
12.3 PrecipitatesinSteel 210
12.4 SiO NanoparticlesinaPolymerMatrix–AnIndustrialApplication 213
2
12.5 GreenSurfactants 213
Acknowledgments 215
References 215
13 AnomalousSmall-AngleX-rayScattering 217
UllaVainio
13.1 Introduction 217
13.2 Theory 218
13.2.1 ScatteringPowerofElements 218
13.2.2 ContrastVariation 219
x Contents
13.2.3 PartialStructureFactorFormalism 219
13.2.4 Model-DependentASAXS 221
13.2.5 SubtractionMethod 221
13.3 Experiments 223
13.4 Example:ASAXSonCatalystNanoparticles 223
13.5 SummaryandOutlook 223
References 224
14 Imaging 227
WolfgangTreimer
14.1 Radiography 227
14.1.1 Fundamentals 227
14.1.2 InteractionsofNeutronswithMatter 228
14.1.3 Geometries 230
14.1.4 ResolutionFunctions 232
14.1.5 ImageDegradation 235
14.1.6 OtherImagingTechniques 236
14.1.6.1 EnergyDispersiveRadiography 236
14.1.6.2 Real-TimeRadiography 238
14.1.6.3 PhaseContrastRadiography 239
14.2 Tomography 240
14.2.1 MathematicalIntroduction 240
14.2.2 SliceTheorem,ShannonTheorem 241
14.2.3 ImageReconstruction 243
14.3 NewDevelopmentsinNeutronTomography 244
14.3.1 Refraction 246
14.3.2 Ultra-SmallAngleNeutronTomography 247
14.3.3 RadiographyandTomographywithPolarizedNeutrons 249
References 250
15 NeutronandSynchrotron-Radiation-BasedImagingforApplications
inMaterialsScience–FromMacro-toNanotomography 253
FelixBeckmann
15.1 Introduction 253
15.1.1 Attenuation-ContrastProjections 253
15.1.2 Phase-ContrastProjections 254
15.1.3 Phase-EnhancedProjections 255
15.1.4 DirectPhase-ContrastProjections 255
15.1.5 IndirectPhase-ContrastProjections 255
15.2 Parallel-BeamTomography 256
15.2.1 MeasurementandReconstruction 256
15.2.2 DensityResolutionandDetectorQuality 258
15.2.3 DataEvaluationandVisualization 258
15.3 MacrotomographyUsingNeutrons 258
15.3.1 ExperimentalSetup 258
15.3.2 MeasurementsandResults 260
Contents xi
15.4 MicrotomographyUsingSynchrotronRadiation 264
15.4.1 BeamlineOptics 265
15.4.2 ExperimentalSetup 267
15.5 SummaryandOutlook 271
References 271
16 𝛍-TomographyofEngineeringMaterials 275
AstridHaibelandJuliaHerzen
16.1 Introduction 275
16.2 AdvantageofSynchrotronTomography 275
16.3 Applicationsand3DImageAnalysis 276
16.3.1 DischargingProcessesinAlkalineCells 276
16.3.2 MicrostructuralInvestigationsofNb SnMulti-filamentarySuperconductor
3
Wires 278
16.3.3 InfluenceoftheFoamingAgentonMetallicFoamStructures 280
16.3.4 ExvivoGrating-BasedPhaseContrastImagingofHumanCarotid
Arteries 281
16.4 ImageArtifacts 282
16.4.1 RingArtifacts 282
16.4.2 ImageNoise 284
16.4.3 EdgeArtifacts 284
16.4.4 MotionArtifacts 285
16.4.5 CenteringErrorsoftheRotationAxis 286
16.5 Summary 286
References 286
PartIII NewandEmergingMethods 291
17 3DX-rayDiffractionMicroscope 293
HenningF.Poulsen,WolfgangLudwig,andSørenSchmidt
17.1 BasicSetupandStrategy 294
17.1.1 The3DXRDMicroscope 296
17.2 IndexingandCharacterizationofAveragePropertiesofEachGrain 296
17.2.1 ApplicationI:NucleationandGrowthStudies 297
17.2.2 ApplicationII:PlasticDeformation 298
17.2.3 ApplicationIII:StudiesofSubgrainsandNanocrystallineMaterials 299
17.3 MappingofGrainsandOrientations 300
17.3.1 ModeIII:MappingGrainsinUndeformedSpecimens 300
17.3.2 ModeIV:MappingOrientationsinDeformedSpecimens 301
17.3.3 ApplicationI:Recrystallization 302
17.3.4 ApplicationII:GrainGrowth 303
17.4 Combining3DXRDandTomography 304
17.4.1 GrainMappingbyTomography 304
17.5 Outlook 305
References 306