Netherlands quarterly for the history of art

67 Pages·1975·10.956 MB·English

by  Simiolus (auth.)

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Simiolus
Netherlands quarterly
for the history ofa rt
Volume 7 I974
Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V
Simiolus is published under the auspices of the to say that without his help the journal would never
Foundation for Dutch Art-Historical Publications, have gotten off the ground.
whose members are Mr. S.J. van den Bergh, Dr. Two new members joined the Foundation in the
F.]. Duparc, Mr. M. Grootenboer, Mr. E. de past year: Mr. E. de Jongh and Prof. R. W. Schell er.
Jongh, Dr. P.P.V. van Moorsel, Prof. H.W. van One of the founding editors of Simiolus also
Os, Prof. R.W. SeheHer and Dr. P.J.J. van Thiel. resigned in 1974-D.P. Snoep, who was one of the
The secretary of the Foundation is Mr. R.E.O. original group who set up the journal nearly ten
Ekkart. In 1974, Prof. J.G. van Gelder, who was years ago. His contribution to Simiolus over the
one of the founders of Simiolus as weil as of the years has been immeasurable.
Foundation, resigned his membership. The editors
would like to express their gratitude to him for his The translation ofDutch contributions into English
unfailing encouragement and indispensable aid is subsidized by the Netherlands Organization for
throughout the life of Simiolus. It is no exaggeration Pure Research (zwo).
Simiolus Contents
Netherlands quarterly IOANNIS SPATHARAKIS Three portraits of
the early Comnenian period 5
for the history ofa rt
Heemskerck and Junius 21
Volume 7 I974 DAVID CAST Marten van Heemskerck's
Momus criticizing the works of the gods: a
Number I problern of Erasmian iconography 22
ILJA M. VELOMAN Maarten van Heemskerck
and Hadrianus Junius: the relationship
between a painter and a humanist 35
BOOK REVIEWS
BRUCE COLE H.W. van Os & Marian Prakken,
ed., The Florentine paintings in Holland,
IJOO-ISOO 55
J. GILTAY Hans-Ulrich Beck,Jan van Goyen,
IS96-I6s6 57
E. TAVERNE H.P.R. Rosenberg, De I9de-
eeuwse kerkelijke bouwkunst in Nederland 6o
Simiolus is published four times a year by Fibula-Van EDITORS C. Broos, J.P. Filedt Kok, P. Hecht, E. de Jongh,
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ISBN 978-94-015-2065-2 ISBN 978-94-015-3267-9 (eBook)
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© 1975 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. No part
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Originally pub1ished by Unieboek, Bussum, and Gary Schwartz,
Maarssen in 1975.
5
*
Three portraits of the early Comnenian period
I oannis Spatharakis
The Byzantine emperor was the center of a cult which affairs,5 actively ass1stmg in the highest ecclesiastical
went back to the Roman era. It contained strong Hel assernblies from the first general council of Nicaea
lenistic and oriental elements which had been adapted called by Constantine the Great in 325 to the last im
to fit in with Christian ideas and beliefs, while the latter portant council of 1439, which was held in Florence in
in their turn had introduced new aspects and modes the presence of John VIII Palaeologue. He is, therefore,
into the imperial concept. The emperor was now no often depicted presiding at the synod,6 or in a frontis
Ionger regarded as divine, but as a representative ofGod piece to the acta of a council. 7
on earth.1 These are only a few examples of the opportunities
That he was deemed to hold a position between heav available to Byzantine artists for portraying the emperor
en and earth is known to us not only from Iiterature but and his family in mosaics, wall paintings, miniatures
also from pictorial art.2 As the descendant of Constan and the minor arts. Coinage excepted, the largest num
tine the Great, the lsapostolos, he is portrayed with a ber of portraits of emperors is found in miniatures in
nimbus like Christ and the saints, while in representa manuscripts,8 in accordance with tradition as old as the
tions of coronations, it is Christ who crowns him and empire itself. The existence of books in which the
the co-emperor, thus indicating that he has been ap emperor was portrayed is already mentioned by St.
pointed by God to rule a Christian empire.3 Any mili John Chrysostom (second half of the 4th century),9 but
tary successes he might score would be the result of in fact the earliest portrait of this type to have come
divine help and on such occasions he is again shown down to us is that of Princess Anicia Juliana, which
receiving the victor's diadem from Christ or another appears in a Dioscurides manuscript executed in Con
representative of God.4 As weil as being the secular stantinople in 512 (Vienna, Österreichische National
head of state he also took an important part in church bibliothek, ms. med. gr. I ).10 This reminds us that it is
" This article was written as the result of a study trip to Greece and gr. I7) executed in IOI9 after his return from the final defeat of Tsar
Italy, made possible by a grant from the Netherlands Organization for Samuel of the Bulgars (see S. Der Nersessian, "Remarks on the date
the Advancement ofPure Research (zwo). It was translated from the of the menologium and the psalter written for Basil 11," Byzantion IS
Dutch by Patricia Wardle. [I94ü-4I], p. us).
1 See 0. Treitinger, Die äströmische Kaiser- und Reichsidee nach 5 R. Janin, "L'empereur dans l'Eglise byzantine," Nouvelle Revue
ihrer Gestaltung im höfischen Zeromoniell, Jena 1938 (reprinted 1956); Theologique 77 (I9SS), pp. 49-60; A. Michel, Die Kaisermacht in der
H.-W. Haussig, Kulturgeschichte von Byzanz, Stuttgart I9662, pp. Ostkirche (84J-1204), Darmstadt I959·
224-55. 6 Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus (1347-54) is depicted in codex
2 F or the iconography of the Byzantine emperor, see P. E. Schramm, Par. gr. I242 presiding at the synod of 1351 (see C. Walter, L'icono
"Das Herrscherbild in der Kunst des frühen Mittelalters," Vorträge graphie des concils dans Ia tradition byzantine, Paris I970, pp. 70-73).
der Bibliothek Warburg 2 (I922-23), part I, Leipzig and Berlin I924, 7 Emperor Manuel I Comnenus (1143-80) and his wife Mariaare
pp. I45-224, and especially A. Grabar, L'empereur dans l'art byzantin, depicted in codex Vat. gr. r I 76, which contains the acta of the
Paris I936. council of I r66 (see S. Sakkos, '0 nat~(! fWV f'ElCwv f'OV ianv. B'.
3 The first emperor tobe crowned bya patriarchwas Leo I (457-74). "Ee·~·- "al avvo~O! .. ard 10V IB' aliöva [Inov~a 111~(/!0V
For representations of coronations in pictorial art, see Grabar, op. cit. 'E""ArJO!aoweijq Teaf'ftaroJ.oy[aq, 8], Thessalonika I968, and C.
(note 2), p. I 12ff. Mango, "The councilian edict of I I66," Dumbarton Oaks Papers I7
4 Examples of an emperor crowned as victor are to be found in the [1963], pp. 3I7-30).
ms. gr. 5 IO, Paris, Bibi. Nat., where Basil I (867-86) is crowned by the 8 The author of this article is preparing a study of the portrait in
archangel Michael after his successful campaign in Germanicia (879; Byzantine manuscripts.
see I. Spatharakis, "The portraits and the date of the Codex Par. gr. 9 Migne, PG, vol. SI, p. 71.
510," Cahiers Archeologiques 23 [I974], pp. 97-I05). Basil 11 Bulga 10 A. v. Premerstein, K. Wessely and J. Mantuani, Dioscurides,
roctonus (976-I025) is crowned by Christ in a psalter in Venice (Mare. Codex Aniciae Julianae, picturis illustratis, nunc Vindobenensis Med. gr.
I, Leiden I9o6.
6 IOANNIS SPATHARAKIS
not only the emperor who is portrayed in miniatures, script in which it occurs, and whether there is any
but also important state officials as weil as private in direct relationship between the person portrayed and
dividuals and monks. the manuscript. It is also important to know whether
The study of the secular portrait in the Byzantine the person portrayed is receiving or affering a book, or
world demands a knowledge of the social and cultural whether we are dealing with a memorial, representative
background in which it evolved, but this knowledge can or official portrait. From the artistic and iconographic
in turn be enriched by an examination of such por point of view we must try to determine the quality of
traits. 11 The portraits that give us the most information the likeness by comparing it with other portraits of the
about the milieu of the portrayed are those in illumi same person in miniatures, wall paintings and the minor
nated manuscripts. Unlike mosaics and frescos, which arts. When no such comparative material is available,
generally depict donors in connection with the founda the artistic quality of the miniature can be of crucial
tion or restoration of a church and seldom contain more importance, for it is indisputable that the greater the
than a few words, if that, concerning them, miniatures artistic capacity of the illuminator, the more detailed
are invariably linked to a Ionger text, which may tell us and accurate will be the portrait.
a Iot about the people portrayed. Moreover, the text To identify a portrait that is not provided with an
concerned need not be a Bible or liturgical manuscript inscription a painstaking procedure must be followed.
with a brief colophon-portraits are also to be found This can best be illustrated by an example. In Codex
throughout the Byzantine period in manuscripts of Barberini gr. 372 in the Vatican Library there are un
scientific treatises, chronicles, orations and so on. Just captioned portraits of an imperial couple with their little
as Princess Anicia Juliana was portrayed in a Dioscu son. The miniatures can be dated by paleography and
rides manuscript early on in the empire, so in the style to the middle of the I rth century. Since all three
Palaeologue period (I26I~I453) we find a portrait of figures are being crowned by Christ and three angels,
Grand Duke Alexis Apocaucos in a Hippocrates manu and the little boy is holding a book-the codex itself
script.12 Portraits of the chroniclers Manasses, 13 Cho we may conclude that the miniature was made on the
niates14 and Pachymeres15 are appended to their histo occasion of the boy's coronation as co-emperor. In light
ries, while portraits of emperors can be found not only of this and in view of the fact that the crowns are of a
in psalters, gospels and the like, but also in manuscripts type that was not used after I I20/9 we can Iimit the
containing their own writings, 16 chrysobulls17 or histo choice to one of several imperial families. The final
ries of their reigns.18 verdict is determined in this case by the great stylistic
To obtain the maximum amount ofinformation from similarities of the Barberini psalter with the Theodore
such a portrait we need to know the nature ofthe manu- psalter in the British Museum (Add. I9352) dated
II For portraits of the late Byzantine period, see T. Velmans, "Le (I39I-1425) is portrayed on the frontispiece to a manuscript in Paris
portrait dans l'art des Paleologues," in Artet socihe a Byzance SOUS !es (Suppl. gr. 309) of his funeral oration for his brother Theodore,
Paleologues, Venice I97I, pp. 93-148, and for illuminated manuscripts despotes of the Morea (d. 1407; see exhib. cat. Byzance, nr. 52; Ve i
of the time, see H. Belting, Das illuminierte Buch in der spätbyzantini maus, op. cit. [note u]. p. roo, fig. 3).
schen Gesellschaft, Heidelberg I970, esp. p. 72ff. 17 For portraits of emperors in chrysobulls, see J.P. Alexander, "A
12 Par. gr. 2I44 (see exhib. cat. Byzance et Ia France midiivale, chrysobull of the emperor Andronicus 11 Palaeologue in favour of the
Paris I958, nr. 64, pl. XXIII, and Belting, op. cit. [note II], pp. 4, I9, see of Kanina in Albania," Byzantion IS (I94D-4I), pp. I67-207;
59). Ve lmans, op. cit. (note II ), pp. I04--<>6.
IJ Constantine Manasses (d. II87) is portrayed in Vind. Hist. gr. 18 A complete gallery of the Byzantine emperors appears in codex
I49· a.S.s.s. in the Biblioteca Estense, Modena, while in the Pachymeres
14 Nieetas Choniates (mid-I2th century-I2IJ) appears in Vind. manuscripts mentioned in note IS above there are portraits of em
Hist. gr. 53· perors Theodore 11 Lascaris (I254-58), Michael VIII Palaeologue
15 George Pachymeres (1242-IJIO) is shown in ms. gr. 442 in the (1259-82) and Andronicus 11 Palaeologue (1282-I328).
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Muni eh, and in two copies after it: 19 The crowns in this manuscript were changed to a semispherical
Venice, Mare. gr. 404 and codex Mb IJ in the University Library, form during a later restoration of the miniatures. This misled E. de
Tübingen. Wald ("The Comnenian portraits in the Barberini Psalter," Hesperia
16 The theological writings ofEmperor John VI Cantacuzenus (Par. IJ [1944], pp. 78-86) and M. Bonicatti ("Per l'origine del Saiterio
gr. I242) are illustrated with a double portrait oftheir author (see note Barberiano greco 372 e Ia cronologia del Tetraevangelo Urbinate
6; exhib. cat. Byzance et Ia France midiivale, cit. [note I2], nr. so; and greco 2," Rivista di Cultura Classica de Medioevale 2 [r96o], pp. 4I-
Belting, op. cit. [note u], pp. 84-88, fig. SI). Manne! 11 Paleologus 6I), who respectively identified the imperial family asthat of Alexius I
and John 11.
Three early Comnenian portraits 7
1 St. Gregory ofNazianzus and a Byzantine nobleman.
Dionysiou 61, fol. IV (photo author)
1066.20 The imperial family can be identified as Con circumstantial evidence alone, we propose here to ex
stantine x Ducas (1059-67), his wife Eudocia Makrem amine an unidentified portrait in Codex Dionysiou 61
bolitissa and their son Michael, the later emperor, who on Mount Athos and some related portraits.
was crowned co-emperor in Io6o, this being also the
year of execution of the codex. On fol. IV ofDionysiou 61 appear two standing figures,
Needless to say, it is not always possible to identify of whom the one on the right is identified by inscription
an unknown portrait with certainty. We often have to as St. Gregory of Nazianzus (fi.g. 1 ). The figure on the
proceed on the basis of Suppositions and assumptions, left is unidentified, but he is obviously a nobleman;
with only the barest clues to guide us. Bearing this in Galavaris refers to·him as a "prince."21 The miniature
mind, and acknowledging the necessity of relying on occurs in a manuscript of the Homilies of St. Gregory
20 S. Der Nersessian, L'illustration de Psautiers Grecs de moyen age rius Nazianzenus, Princeton (Studies in Manuscript Illumination, 4)
2: Londres, Add. 19352, Paris 1970. 1969, fig. 355, with the caption "Gregory ofNazianzus offering a book
21 G. Galavaris, The illustrations of the liturgical komilies of Grego- to a prince."
8 IOANNIS SPATHARAKIS
ofNazianzus, consisting of 180 folios measuring 212 X hair in separate strokes and the sharp contrasts of light
154 mm. and containing I3 other miniatures, all ofhigh and shadow on the face recall the codex Vat. Urb. gr. 2,
quality. 22 Manuscripts of the Homilies typically include which can be dated between the years I I 19 and I I4326
only 16 of St. Gregory's 45 known sermons-the 16 because of the portraits of the Comnenian emperors.
that were most often used in the liturgy. That is the Another characteristic common to both manuscripts is
case here as weil. an emphasis on the chin when figures are portrayed in
The last homily in Dionysiou I6 is incomplete, since profile and the flame edges of the rocks in the landscape.
the last folios have been lost. This is doubly unfortu These details however, appear with greater emphasis
nate, since it was here, according to Lambros, that we in the Vaticanus codex than in the Athos manuscript,
could have expected to find the name of the donor or a fact that may suggest a slightly earlier date for the
the copyist. Lambros seems to suggest in his description latter."27 Lazarev includes Dionysiou 6I in a Iist of
of the manuscript that the figure beside St. Gregory on manuscripts dating from the I Ith century.28
fol. IV is none other than the copyist himself.23 This is The two figures on fol. Iv are shown against a gold
ruled out, in our opinion, by his costume, which is that background, standing on an area which is painted green
of a highly placed individual. Whether or not he is the and has a broad undulation in lighter green on it to
donor is a question we shall come back to later. Gala indicate vegetation. On the left is the young nobleman
varis too thinks that the names of the copyist and the dressed in Byzantine court costume, on the right St.
unknown young man in the miniature might have been Gregory ofNazianzus, whose name (o ä.ywr; Te'YJr6ewr;
o
given at the end of the manuscript on the lost folios, but E>eo.A.oyor;) is written above his nimbus. Above them
he does not seem to expect them to be one and the same in the center is a rainbow in shades ofblue, framing the
person.24 half-length figure of Christ with a golden cross nimbus,
Lambros dates the manuscript, incorrectly, in the wearing a blue chiton and a golden brown himation.
13th century. Weitzmann thinks it was made at the end St. Gregory's face is depicted in accordance with
of the I Ith century, basing his dating on the very slen Byzantine iconography. He has a high bare forehead,
der proportiuns and rather stiff attitudes of the ascetic arched eyebrows, ascetic protruding cheekbones, a
figures.25 Galavaris does not rule out Weitzmann's hook nose and a broad gray beard. He is wearing a light
suggestion, but tries to arrive at a more precise date by blue sticharion,29 a long tunic with long sleeves, and
means of comparisons with, among others, the gospel over it a brown phelonion, a sort of chasuble.30 Round
ms. Vat. Urb. gr. 2: " ... Likewise the treatment ofthe his neck over the phelonion is a white omophorion with
22 S. Lambros, Catalogue ofthe Creek manuscripts on Mount Athos, 29 The anxaewv, a descendant of the Roman tunic, takes its name
Cambridge 1895, vol. r, pp. 323-24; The treasures of Mt. Athos I: from the purple bands (arixo• ; clavt) with which the tunic was deco
Illuminated manuscripts I, Athens 1973, p. 415, figs. 104-17 (color rated. lt was stipulated that it be white and made of linen (although
reproductions). later costlier materials were also used) as it symbolizes purity (Symeon,
23 Lambros, op. cit. (note 22): 'Ev rp. Iß tixwv naewrwaa rov metropolitan of Thessalonika, d. I429 [Migne, PG, vol. ISS, col.
ßtßlwyearpov ~ rov ilwe'Jr~v rov xdJiltxor; :ncetßcß).'Jf'Evov arol~v 7I2A]). For Byzantine ecclesiastical vestments, see P. Bernardakis,
:rr:oil~(!'}V xal naeovata,ovta tov 10f'OV tWv Aoyrov tir; T(!'JYO(!LOV tOV "Les ornements liturgiques chez !es Grecs," Echos d'orient 5 (I90I
6wl6yov. To ovof'a wv ilwe'Jwi! rovwv ~ ßtßA.wyearpov rov E:rr:tf'E I902), pp. I29-39· The word sticharion was also used by Constantine
A.imara Y'Y(!Uf'f'EJ!OV xwiltxor; :rlc(!tctXBtO :n6.vrwr; EV tip vvv A.dnovtt VII Porphyrogenitus to denote the tunic worn by the augusta or ern
aVrij) ·eilet.'' press (auxaetv ßaatMxtv) when she went to the Augusteum near the
24 Galavaris, op. cit. (note 21), p. 207: " ... the names ofthe scribe church of St. Stephen for her coronation and wedding. Besides the
and the prince depicted on the dedication page may have existed at the tunic she also wore a maphorion which the emperor removed from her
end of the missing folios." shoulders during the ceremony and spread out around her. He then
25 K. Weitzmann, Aus den Bibliotheken des Athos, Harnburg 1963, put the chlamys on her which had previously been blessed by the
p. 98. patriarch (Le Iivre des ciremonies, ed. A. Vogt, Paris I935-40, chap. so).
26 This manuscript can, in fact, be dated more precisely. In exhib. 30 The word cpcl6vwv (a diminutive form of which is derived from
cat. Illibro della Bibbia, Vatican 1972, nr. 56, it is put at around 1122, the Latin word paenula and which seems to appear in the form
the year when Alexius, who is shownon fol. I9V with his father John II cpatl6v'1r; only in Pseudo-Paul, Epistle to Timothy 4:I3, at the begin
Comnenus (I I I()--43), was crowned co-emperor by his father. The ning of the 2nd century) goes back to the 2nd century, other forms of
date 1128-29 on fol. 2 was added by a later hand. (See also note 56.) it being still older (see W. Bauer, Wörterbuch zu den Schriften des
27 Galavaris, op. cit. (note 2I), pp. 206--07. Neuen Testaments, Berlin I9635, col. I683, s.v. cpatl6v?Jr;). lt was later
28 V. Lazarev, Storia della pittura bizantina, Turin 1967, p. 250. used to denote the bishop's chlamys. See also Sirneon Thessalonicen
sis, PG, vol. rss, col. 7IJD.