Natural Gas Engineering and Safety Challenges: Downstream Process, Analysis, Utilization and Safety

418 Pages·2014·21.09 MB·English

by  G.G. Nasr

G.G. Nasr · N.E. Connor
Natural Gas
Engineering
and Safety
Challenges
Downstream Process, Analysis,
Utilization and Safety
Natural Gas Engineering and Safety Challenges
G.G. Nasr · N.E. Connor
Natural Gas Engineering
and Safety Challenges
Downstream Process, Analysis,
Utilization and Safety
1 3
G.G. Nasr N.E. Connor
Petroleum and Gas Engineering Division Colwyn Bay
University of Salford UK
Salford
UK
ISBN 978-3-319-08947-8 ISBN 978-3-319-08948-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-08948-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2014945355
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Preface
Natural gas has been a valuable energy commodity for many centuries. According
to Encyclopaedia Britannica, the ancient Chinese were the first to observe the
seeps and the use of natural gas in 600 BC with the first utilisation of it in the
home during the great empire of Persia, now Iran, in 100 AD. It was not until
1803–1812 when the first gas lighting was patented in London by Frederick
Winsor and the first company was then founded in London, England. It was dur -
ing this century (19th) that natural gas for home lighting was also used directly
from the wellhead in Fredonia, New York. Although natural gas was unpopular
prior to the eighteenth century due to the use of manufactured gas such as ‘coal
gas’, it was towards the latter part of the nineteenth century that most industrial
countries started using natural gas and thus large transmission and distribution
pipelines were constructed in transferring the gas to the required areas. The steady
utilisation of natural gas grew to the peak during the 1960s to mid-1970s when
the shortage of crude oil enforced most industrial nations to find alternative ways
of harnessing energy and natural gas has since become one of the main fossil fuel
energy sources. Natural gas is colourless with high flammability and energy value
and together with its convenience has resulted in a rapid rise to extensive use as a
fuel today.
As the utilisation of natural gas became more frequent as one of the main
alternative choice of energy source it enabled rapid technological advancement
and attainment of knowledge and understanding in various related disciplines of
natural gas. Particularly over the last decades, there has been constant progress in
research and innovation with regard to the production of natural gas, transmission,
distribution, utilisation, safety and management in both upstream and downstream
processes. The authors, whose backgrounds are outlined below, independently rec-
ognised that whilst there are numerous academically orientated books as well as
conference publications and standards available that address the upstream process
of natural gas and certain specialised texts addressing narrower areas of applica-
tion, there is an absence of an academically and industrially oriented book that
covers, as far as possible, the downstream process, that is, after the wellhead to gas
processing plants and finally to consumers.
v
vi Preface
The book starts in a logical manner with the opening Chap. 1 describing the
fundamentals of natural gas. Subsequent to the wellhead the gas must be transmit-
ted and distributed to its final destination, that is, the consumers. These transmis-
sion and distribution processes require thorough understanding of their systems
and design which are described in Chap. 2. The gas should also be stored or trans-
ported for later use as Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG), this is exposed in Chap. 3.
Natural gas which contains certain physical characteristics should flow through
various transmission and distribution designed network systems as is described
in Chap. 4. No matter where the gas is being transferred to, the accurate control
of it together with understanding its quality are pertinent which could eventually
reflect on the overall capital expenditures of the gas. It is thus with this in mind
that a comprehensive understanding of instrumentation and measurement sys-
tems have been provided in Chap. 5. Although natural gas has become one of the
main energy sources, the accidental release and subsequent ignition of flammable
gas and vapour clouds has led to a number of incidents with catastrophic conse-
quences on oil and gas platforms. Chapter 6 therefore provides inclusive under-
standing of fire and explosion and safety aspects, where appropriate, of the natural
gas. The utilisation of natural gas, including an overview of the heat transfer and
heat exchangers, has also been given in Chap. 7. Within almost all the downstream
processes the viability of the natural gas is dependent on how the gas business and
the related projects should be managed and sustained, which is the subject mat-
ter of Chap. 8. In the last Chap. 9, the authors have provided various innovation
management models from their own experience and borrowed from various disci-
plines, with a few case studies which over the last decade have become vital ingre-
dients in the future sustainability of the gas industry.
Prior to commencing their cooperation on this book, GGN and NEC cooper-
ated for many years as committee members of Institution of Gas and Mangers
(IGEM) in Continuous Professional Development (CPD) and organized various
conferences and short courses in gas safety and technology. Also, GGN and NEC
had cooperated in research and consultancy projects, particularly involving gas
processing and metering systems. The incentive to cooperate and write the book
came from frequent requests from those in academia and industry for a text that
was suited to their applications-oriented needs in the downstream process and yet
which covered a wide breadth of knowledge. Although, together, the authors have
experience in a wide range of gas engineering and safety applications, the very
large number of concerns that exist in industry has meant that expertise has been
sought from specialist companies and individuals, where appropriate. These spe-
cialists are thanked in a later section of this introduction.
Ghasem G. Nasr is Professor of Mechanical Engineering and Innovation at
University of Salford, Manchester, England and he is the head of Petroleum and
Gas Engineering in the School of Computing, Science and Engineering (CSE)
and Director of sprays and petroleum technology research groups. Graduating in
Mechanical Engineering, Fuel Technology (PgDip) and Energy Science (MSc)
from the University of Middlesex and Sussex University, respectively, and Heat
Transfer and Fluid Mechanics (Ph.D.) from the University of Swansea, he moved
Preface vii
into project engineering management and energy utilization between 1988
and 1995 to Tata Steel, Wales, and subsequently acted as a Senior Consultant
in Europe and the Middle East before moving to the University College of
Manchester (now Stockport College) managing the engineering department. He
then joined the University of Salford in 2001 as a leader of Gas Engineering and
Management. He has over 25 years’ experience in innovation and research in
many areas of spray production and gas utilisation and has been consultant to over
120 companies in New Product Development (NPD), innovation and research. He
was a founder of ‘Spray Research Group’ and has authored 130 papers, including
editorship of books and journals, and acquired 7 patents and was a lead author of
the book Industrial Sprays and Atomisation (SV, 2001). He has also held a num-
ber of executive appointments in various academic, professional and steering com-
mittees. Currently, he is a member of PDC of IGEM and Executive Member of
steering committee of Praxis-Global. He has also been guest speaker on many
international platforms and delivered over 100 advanced short courses in various
related subjects. He is a Chartered Engineer, a Fellow of the Institution of Gas
Engineers and Managers (FIGEM) and of the Institute of Mechanical Engineers
(FIMechE) and Member of FEANI EurIng and Institute of Liquid Atomisation
and Spraying Systems (ILASS). Recently, he has been appointed as a director of
Technology and Innovation at the Salvalco Ltd.
Norman E. Conner joined the North Western Gas Board as a student engi-
neer in 1950 and began studying Mechanical Engineering at Warrington and
St. Helens Technical Colleges. In 1953 he was awarded a Whitworth Society prize
and a Technical State Scholarship to study Gas Engineering at the University of
Leeds, graduating in 1957 with an Honors B.Sc., Degree. He returned to the North
Western Gas Board as a production engineer in the South Lancashire group and
was appointed Chief Chemist at the Warrington Production Station in 1958. In
1964 he left to take up an appointment as a Lecturer in Gas Engineering at the
Royal College of Advanced Technology, Salford. He is a Chartered Engineer, a
Fellow of the Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers and of the Energy
Institute. He represented the University on the IGEM Education, Training and
Academic Committees for many years and has been Chairman of the North
Western Section of E.I., and the Manchester Gas Association. He received an
M.Sc., Degree and Senior Lectureship in 1977. During his career he was actively
involved in running Conferences/Symposia in gas engineering, fuel utilisation and
chemical engineering at the University. He is also a co-author of: Industrial Gas
Utilisation Engineering Principles and Practice Bowker 1977. He was involved in
setting up and teaching on the M.Sc., course in Gas Engineering and Management
with colleagues (A.L. Bowler and Dr. R. Pritchard) in the late 1980s, later becom-
ing Course Director. He is still actively involved in the Gas and Petroleum
Engineering programme at the University.
Acknowledgments
This book reflects a total of some 80 years’ experience of the authors in gas
engineering and utilisation in both industry and academia. The successful
completion of the book, however, must be shared with those who provided the
authors with invaluable advice and material. These are from a number of key
companies involved in the field of gas engineering. The authors are very grate-
ful for the willing cooperation of these companies and individuals within them.
Specifically these include the following, where the sections of the book particu-
larly relevant to each company are given in brackets:
• Scotia Gas and Network, Mr. David Macleod (Sect. 4.2)
• Prakash Bhikaji Morje, Engineering Officer, Shell Trading and Shipping
Company, (Chap. 3)
• Dr. R. Pritchard, Previous Senior lecturer University of Salford (Sect. 6.1)
• Abubakar Abbas, Lecturer, Ahmadu Bello University, (Chaps. 1 and 2)
• Dr. Salah Ibrahim, Senior Lecturer, University of Loughborough (Chap. 7)
Where illustrations have been reproduced with permission from other sources,
this is acknowledged in the titles of the figures. Again, the authors express their
thanks for kind agreement of the copyright holders. A number of individual indus-
trial and academic colleagues are also greatly thanked, who kindly used their
expert knowledge in the final manuscript of various chapters. In addition, all our
past and present students in the field whose comments and supports are gratefully
acknowledged. They include Mr. David Macleod, Late Charles Hazel Dean, Lewis
Mather, Mr. Steve Johnson and Andy Bowler (Chap. 5). Also, Dr. R. Pritchard for
his encouragement and supports together with academic colleagues who made
valuable contributions to various chapters. Particularly Dr. Salah Ibrahim from the
University Loughborough who brought expertise and focal contribution to the Fire
and Explosion Chap. 7, Mr. Alan Wells to Chap. 8 and Dr. Godpower Chimagwu
Enyi to Chap. 9 from the University Salford. The authors are also grateful to the
senior research assistant Mr. Abubakar Abbas (Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria,
Nigeria) who brought a wealth of experience into Chaps. 1 and 2. The contribu-
tion of Dr. Amir Nourian of the University of Salford in the preparation of CAD
ix
x Acknowledgments
drawings and Chap. 4 is also greatly acknowledged, also to Mr. Ali Kadir for his
materials used in Chap. 2. Recognition and thanks are provided by the authors to
Ms. Atoosa Sadeghian for her sustained effort in editing the drafts and preparing
the final files for this book, over a period of two years. Finally, we would also like
to thank our families for coping with us during the long hours put into this time-
consuming but rewarding task. This is particularly the case for the long and enjoy-
able hours working at home by GGN, who dedicates his efforts and this book to
Tara, Elica and Sophia for their constant supports.
Salford, Manchester G.G. Nasr
England N.E. Connor
January 2014
Contents
1 Fundamentals of Natural Gas ................................. 1
1.1 Background to Natural Gas ................................ 1
1.1.1 Introduction ..................................... 1
1.1.2 Natural Gas Composition and Characteristics ........... 2
1.1.3 Natural Gas Specifications .......................... 8
1.1.4 Classification of Gas Families ....................... 11
1.2 Combustion Properties .................................... 12
1.2.1 Calorific Value ................................... 12
1.2.2 Wobbe Number ................................... 13
References .................................................. 15
2 Transmission and Distribution Systems and Design ............... 17
2.1 Transmission Pipelines .................................... 17
2.1.1 Introduction ..................................... 17
2.1.2 Gas Transmission Pipeline Design .................... 18
2.1.3 Natural Gas Compression ........................... 27
2.1.4 Testing and Commissioning ......................... 28
2.1.5 Safety in Pipelines Design and Operations ............. 33
2.2 Natural Gas Distribution Networks .......................... 35
2.2.1 Distribution Network Design Consideration ............ 37
2.2.2 Computer-Aided Design ............................ 42
References .................................................. 42
3 Liquefied Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.1 Liquefied Natural Gas .................................... 45
3.1.1 Introduction ..................................... 45
3.1.2 Physical Properties and Composition of LNG ........... 46
3.2 Characteristics of LNG .................................... 50
3.2.1 Flammability of Methane, Oxygen and Nitrogen Mixtures ... 50
3.2.2 Supplementary Characteristics ....................... 52
xi