Natural and Enhanced Attenuation of Contaminants in Soils, Second Edition

325 Pages·2019·22.726 MB·\325

by  Raymond N. Yong (Author), Catherine N. Mulligan (Author)

Natural and Enhanced
Attenuation of Contaminants
in Soils
Natural and Enhanced
Attenuation of Contaminants
in Soils
Second Edition
Raymond N. Yong
Catherine N. Mulligan
Natural and Enhanced
Attenuation of Contaminants
in Soils
Second Edition
Raymond N. Yong
Catherine N. Mulligan
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-1380-6637-3 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts
have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize
to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material
has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval
system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.
com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood
Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and
registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the
CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Yong, R. N. (Raymond Nen), author. | Mulligan, Catherine N., author.
Title: Natural and enhanced attenuation of contaminants in soils / Raymond N.
Yong and Catherine N. Mulligan.
Other titles: Natural attenuation of contaminants in soil
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title,
part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis
Group, the academic division of T&F Informa, plc, 2019. | Previously
published: Boca Raton : Lewis Publishers, c2004 under the title Natural
attenuation of contaminants in soil.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018057925 | ISBN 9781138066373 (hardback : acid-free paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Soil remediation. | Hazardous wastes--Natural attenuation.
Classification: LCC TD878 .Y657 2019 | DDC 628.5/5--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018057925
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Authors .....................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Managing Soil Contamination .............................................................1
1.1 Site and Soil Contamination ......................................................1
1.1.1 Soil and the Geoenvironment .......................................2
1.1.2 Contaminants, Pollutants, and Toxicants .....................3
1.2 Sources of Contaminants Found in Contaminated Sites ...........4
1.3 Impact of Contaminants in Soils ...............................................8
1.3.1 Soil Status or Functionality ..........................................8
1.3.2 Health Threats ..............................................................8
1.3.3 Impact on Water and Water Resources in the
Geoenvironment .........................................................11
1.4 Mobility and Attenuation of Contaminants.............................12
1.4.1 Dilution, Retardation, and Retention..........................12
1.4.2 Attenuation as a Contaminant Management Tool ......14
1.4.2.1 Natural Attenuation ....................................14
1.5 Regulatory Attitudes ...............................................................16
1.5.1 Monitored Natural Attenuation ..................................17
1.5.2 Enhanced Natural Attenuation ...................................19
1.6 Concluding Remarks ...............................................................20
References ..........................................................................................21
Chapter 2 Nature of Soils ....................................................................................23
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................23
2.2 Parent Material and Soil Formation ........................................23
2.3 Soil Composition .....................................................................25
2.3.1 Size Characterization—Coarse-Grained Soils ..........26
2.3.2 Size Characterization—Fine-Grained Soils ..............27
2.3.2.1 Non-clay Minerals ......................................28
2.4 Clay Minerals ..........................................................................28
2.4.1 Unit Cell, Layer, and Mineral Structure.....................29
2.4.2 Kaolin Group ..............................................................31
2.4.3 Chlorites .....................................................................32
2.4.4 Smectites ....................................................................32
2.4.5 Illites and Mixed-Layer Clays ....................................32
2.4.6 Soil Organics ..............................................................33
2.5 Surface Properties of Soils ......................................................35
2.5.1 Specific Surface Area .................................................35
2.5.2 Reactive Surfaces of Soil Fractions ............................37
v
vi Contents
2.6 Surface Functional Groups ......................................................38
2.6.1 Surface Functional Groups—Smectites .....................38
2.6.2 Surface Functional Groups—Kaolinites ....................40
2.6.3 Surface Functional Groups—Chlorites ......................40
2.6.4 Surface Functional Groups—Oxides .........................40
2.6.5 Surface Functional Groups—Soil Organic Matter ......40
2.6.6 Surface Charge Density ..............................................41
2.7 Physical Attributes and Soil Structure ....................................42
2.7.1 Soil Composition and Soil Structure ..........................44
2.8 Concluding Remarks ...............................................................47
References ..........................................................................................47
Chapter 3 Soil-Water Relations ...........................................................................49
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................49
3.2 Functional Groups and Electric Charges.................................49
3.2.1 Point of Zero Charge and Variable Charges ..............50
3.2.2 Electrified Interface and Interactions .........................52
3.2.3 Interactions and Surface Complexation Models ........55
3.2.4 Applications and Chemical Speciation ......................56
3.3 Soil-Water Energy Characteristics ..........................................57
3.3.1 Components of Soil-Water Potential ..........................59
3.4 Chemical Reactions in Porewater ............................................61
3.4.1 Acid-Base Reactions, Hydrolysis ...............................61
3.4.2 Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reactions ....................62
3.5 Interactions, Exchanges, and Sorption ....................................63
3.5.1 Bonding and Sorption Mechanisms ...........................64
3.5.2 Cation Exchange .........................................................64
3.6 Chemical Buffering and Partitioning ......................................66
3.6.1 Partitioning, Adsorption Isotherms, and
Distribution Coefficients ............................................67
3.7 Water Uptake and Movement in Soils .....................................69
3.7.1 Water Uptake and Unsaturated Moisture Movement .....69
3.7.2 Unsaturated Flow .......................................................70
3.7.3 Saturated Flow and Hydraulic Conductivity ..............74
3.8 Movement of Solutes ...............................................................79
3.8.1 Diffusion of Solutes and Diffusion Coefficient ..........79
3.8.2 Solute Movement in Saturated Soils ..........................82
3.9 Concluding Remarks ...............................................................84
References ..........................................................................................87
Chapter 4 Natural Attenuation of Heavy Metals ................................................89
4.1 Introduction .............................................................................89
4.2 Inorganic Contaminants ..........................................................89
4.2.1 Heavy Metals ..............................................................90
Contents vii
4.3 Mobility, Availability, and Source-Path-Receptor ..................95
4.4 Interactions and Assimilation of Heavy Metals ......................97
4.4.1 Acid-Base Reactions ..................................................97
4.4.2 Redox and Eh-pH Relationships ................................99
4.4.3 Molecular Interactions .............................................101
4.5 Partitioning of Heavy Metals ................................................101
4.5.1 Adsorption Isotherms ...............................................103
4.5.2 Column Leaching Tests ............................................107
4.5.3 Distribution Coefficient k ........................................111
d
4.5.4 Breakthrough Curves and Retardation Factors ........113
4.6 Preferential Sorption and Selectivity .....................................116
4.6.1 Selectivity .................................................................116
4.6.2 Influence of Ligands .................................................120
4.7 Soil Fractions and Sorption ...................................................123
4.7.1 Selective Sequential Extraction ................................124
4.7.2 Selective Sequential Fraction Addition or
Removal ...................................................................131
4.7.3 Influence of Particle Size on Retention of Metals .....133
4.8 Concluding Remarks .............................................................134
References ........................................................................................136
Chapter 5 Interactions and Fate of Organic Chemical Contaminants
in Soils ........................................................................................141
5.1 Introduction ...........................................................................141
5.2 Organic Chemical Contaminants ..........................................141
5.2.1 Sources of Organic Chemical Contaminants ...........141
5.2.2 Functional Groups and Soil Particle Bonding ..........143
5.2.2.1 Hydroxyl Functional Group ......................144
5.2.2.2 C=O Functional Groups ...........................145
5.2.2.3 Amino Functional Group ..........................146
5.2.3 Petroleum Hydrocarbons ..........................................146
5.3 Intermolecular Interactions ...................................................150
5.4 Adsorption and Bonding Mechanisms ..................................152
5.4.1 Partitioning and Organic Carbon Content ...............154
5.4.2 Volatilization ............................................................155
5.5 Partitioning of Organic Chemical Contaminants ..................156
5.5.1 Adsorption Isotherms ...............................................156
5.5.2 Equilibrium Partition Coefficients ...........................158
5.5.3 Organic Chemicals—Partitioning and
Adsorption Isotherms ...............................................163
5.6 Interactions and Fate .............................................................166
5.6.1 Abiotic Reactions .....................................................166
5.6.2 Hydrolysis .................................................................166
5.6.3 Dehydrohalogenation ...............................................167
5.6.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions ...............................167
viii Contents
5.7 Mobility of Organic Chemical Contaminants .......................169
5.8 Concluding Remarks .............................................................174
References ........................................................................................176
Chapter 6 Biological Transformation of Contaminants ....................................181
6.1 Introduction ...........................................................................181
6.2 Types of Organisms ...............................................................181
6.2.1 Protozoa ..................................................................182
6.2.2 Fungi.......................................................................182
6.2.3 Algae ......................................................................183
6.2.4 Viruses....................................................................183
6.2.5 Animals (Worms) ...................................................184
6.2.6 Plants ......................................................................184
6.2.7 Bacteria...................................................................184
6.3 Classification of Micro-organisms ........................................187
6.3.1 Actinomycetes ..........................................................188
6.4 Physical and Chemical Environmental Effects on
Micro-organisms ...................................................................189
6.4.1 Contaminant Availability .......................................189
6.4.2 Chemical Factors ....................................................190
6.4.3 Toxicity ...................................................................190
6.4.4 Heavy Metals and Other Compounds ....................191
6.4.5 Molecular Structure ...............................................191
6.4.6 Halorespiration .......................................................191
6.4.7 Cometabolism .........................................................192
6.5 Biodegradation of Organic Chemicals ..................................193
6.5.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons ........................................193
6.5.2 Alkanes ..................................................................193
6.5.3 Alkenes ...................................................................193
6.5.4 Cycloalkanes ..........................................................194
6.5.5 BTEX .....................................................................194
6.5.6 Polycyclic or Polynuclear Aromatic
Hydrocarbons .........................................................196
6.5.7 MTBE .....................................................................198
6.5.8 Halogenated Aliphatic Compounds .......................199
6.5.9 Halogenated Aromatic Compounds .......................200
6.5.10 Pharmaceuticals .....................................................202
6.5.11 Nitroaromatics ........................................................202
6.6 Biotransformation of Metals, Non-metals, and
Radionuclides ........................................................................202
6.6.1 Metals .....................................................................202
6.6.2 Bacterial Metabolism of Nitrogen ..........................204
6.6.3 Bacterial Metabolism of Sulfur ..............................204
6.7 Concluding Remarks .............................................................206
References ........................................................................................208
Contents ix
Chapter 7 Field Performance and Assessments ................................................213
7.1 Introduction ...........................................................................213
7.2 Assessment of Potential for Natural Attenuation ..................214
7.2.1 Processes and Mechanisms Involved in Natural
Attenuation ...............................................................215
7.2.2 Bioattenuation and Bioavailability ...........................216
7.2.3 Other Factors ............................................................217
7.3 Assessment of Sustainability .................................................218
7.4 Procedures for Monitoring ....................................................220
7.4.1 Importance of Monitoring ........................................220
7.4.2 Components of Monitoring ......................................222
7.4.3 Established Monitoring Techniques .........................224
7.4.4 Development of Monitoring Techniques ..................225
7.5 Models to Simulate Natural Attenuation ...............................234
7.5.1 Background on Modelling ........................................234
7.5.2 Available Models for Natural Attenuation ...............235
7.5.3 Application, Calibration, and Verification
of Models ..................................................................238
7.6 Protocols Developed for Natural Attenuation .......................241
7.6.1 Various Technical Protocols .....................................241
7.6.2 Inclusion of Soils and Sediments in Protocols .........246
7.7 Case Studies of Natural Attenuation .....................................247
7.7.1 Natural Attenuation of Organic Contaminants ........247
7.7.2 Natural Attenuation of Inorganic Contaminants ......250
7.7.3 Enhanced Natural Attenuation .................................251
7.8 Concluding Remarks .............................................................253
References ........................................................................................254
Chapter 8 Application of Monitored Natural Attenuation ................................263
8.1 Introduction ...........................................................................263
8.2 Monitoring .............................................................................264
8.2.1 Site Characterization ................................................264
8.2.2 Monitoring Essentials ...............................................265
8.2.3 Tests and Studies on Retrieved Samples ..................268
8.3 Evidence of Contaminant Attenuation ..................................270
8.3.1 Tracking Organic Chemical Contaminants .............271
8.3.2 Tracking Heavy Metal Contaminants ......................273
8.4 Considering Monitored Natural Attenuation Application .....274
8.4.1 Contaminant Release and Augmentation .................275
8.4.2 Contaminant Release Studies ...................................276
8.4.2.1 Batch Equilibrium Studies ........................276
8.4.2.2 Leaching Column Tests ............................279