NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS) 20120010224: Field Geologic Observation and Sample Collection Strategies for Planetary Surface Exploration: Insights from the 2010 Desert RATS Geologist Crewmembers

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ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]]
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Acta Astronautica
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/actaastro
Field geologic observation and sample collection strategies
for planetary surface exploration: Insights from the 2010 Desert
RATS geologist crewmembers
Jose´ M. Hurtado Jr.a,n, Kelsey Youngb, Jacob E. Bleacherc, W. Brent Garryd, James W. Rice Jr.e
aUniversityofTexasatElPaso,DepartmentofGeologicalSciences,500WestUniversityAvenue,ElPaso,TX79968-05555,UnitedStates
bSchoolofEarthandSpaceExploration,ArizonaStateUniversity,BatemanPhysicalSciencesCenter,F-wing,Room686,Tempe,AZ85287-1404,UnitedStates
cPlanetaryGeodynamicsLaboratory,Code698,NationalAeronauticsandSpaceAdministration,GoddardSpaceFlightCenter,8800GreenbeltRd.,Greenbelt,
MD20771,UnitedStates
dPlanetaryScienceInstitute,1700EastFortLowell,Suite106,Tucson,AZ85719,UnitedStates
eSolarSystemExplorationDivision,PlanetaryGeodynamicsLaboratory,Code698,NASAGoddardSpaceFlightCenter,Greenbelt,MD,UnitedStates
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Articlehistory: Observationistheprimaryroleofallfieldgeologists,andgeologicobservationsputinto
Received1July2011 an evolving conceptual context will be the most important data stream that will be
Receivedinrevisedform relayed to Earth during a planetary exploration mission. Sample collection is also an
6October2011 important planetary field activity, and its success is closely tied to the quality of
Accepted24October2011
contextualobservations.Totestprotocolsfordoingeffectiveplanetarygeologicfield-
work, the Desert RATS (Research and Technology Studies) project deployed two
Keywords: prototyperoversfortwoweeksofsimulatedexploratorytraversesintheSanFrancisco
Fieldgeology volcanic field of northern Arizona. The authors of this paper represent the geologist
Planetaryanalog
crewmembers who participated in the 2010 field test. We document the procedures
Samplecollection
adoptedforDesertRATS2010andreportonourexperiencesregardingtheseprotocols.
Fieldgeologymethods
Carefulconsiderationmustbemadeofvariousissuesthatimpacttheinterplaybetween
Extravehicularactivity(EVA)
Planetaryfieldgeology fieldgeologicobservationsandsamplecollection,includingtimemanagement;strate-
gies related to duplication of samples and observations; logistical constraints on
the volume and mass of samples and the volume/transfer of data collected; and
paradigms for evaluation of mission success. We find that the 2010 field protocols
brought to light important aspects of each of these issues, and we recommend best
practices and modifications to training and operational protocols to address them.
Underlying our recommendations is the recognition that the capacity of the crew to
‘‘flexiblyexecute’’theiractivitiesisparamount.Carefuldesignofmissionparameters,
especiallyfieldgeologicprotocols,iscriticalforenablingthecrewstosuccessfullymeet
theirscienceobjectives.
&2011ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.
Abbreviationsanddefinitions:2/D,twice-per-daycommunications;CC,continuouscommunications;CFN,crewfieldnote;Cuff,arm-mountedcomputer
controlforCFNsystem;D&C,divide-and-conquer;DesertRATS,DesertResearchandTechnologyStudies;Drive,movementofSEVbetweenStations;
EVA,extravehicularactivities;Flexecution,flexibleexecution;GigaPan,roboticpan-tilt-zoomcameramountforhigh-resolutionpanoramicimaging;
GIS,geographicinformationsystem;High-grading,prioritizationforpotentialEarth-return;IVA,intravehicularactivities;KML-format,GoogleEarthfile
formatforGISdata;L&F,lead-and-follow;ScienceBackroom,subsetoftheScienceTeamthatsupportsthecrewduringCC;ScienceTeam,missioncontrol
personnelthatsupport,guide,anddirectthescienceoperationsdonebythecrew;SEV,spaceexplorationvehicle;Station,locationwhereSEVhas
stoppedforscienceoroperationalwork(withorwithoutanEVA);Suitport,rearhatchesontheSEVthatallowquickegress/ingressforEVAsalongwith
dustmitigation;Traverse,seriesofStationsanddrives
nCorrespondingauthor.Tel.:þ19157475669;fax:þ19157475073.
E-mailaddress:[email protected](J.M.HurtadoJr.).
0094-5765/$-seefrontmatter&2011ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2011.10.015
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015
2 J.M.HurtadoJr.etal./ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]]
1. Introduction samples. The latter is a particularly important, difficult,
and multifacetedproblem,and its solutionmustconsider
DesertResearchandTechnologyStudies(DesertRATS)is howtraditional,terrestrialmodesoffieldgeologywillneed
a multi-year series of hardware and operations tests con- to be adapted to geologic field work in extreme environ-
ducted annually since 1997 in the high desert of Arizona ments[8], particularlyduringEVAs. Careful consideration
[1, this issue]. Integrated teams of engineers and scientists mustbe madeofvariousissuesthatimpact the interplay
have merged exploration technologies with exploration betweenfieldgeologicobservationsandsamplecollection.
strategiestosupporttheseambitiousfieldtests,whichallow Theseincludethe time spentmakingobservations versus
testing of science operations approaches that advance collectingsamples;strategiesrelatedtothenumber,type,
human and robotic planetary surface exploration capabil- and degree of duplication in samples and observations;
ities.Thecenterpieceofthesetestsisapairofcrewedrovers logistical constraintson the volumeand mass of samples
designedasfirst-generationprototypesofsmall,pressurized thatcanbecollectedandultimatelyreturnedtoEarthand
spaceexplorationvehicles(SEVs)[1].TheSEVprovidesthe thevolumeofdatathatcanberecordedandtransmittedto
internalvolumenecessaryfortwocrewmemberstoliveand Earth; and paradigms for evaluation of mission success.
worknearly-autonomouslyonsimulatedplanetarymissions This contribution reports on the Desert RATS geologist
forupto14days[1,2].Investigationscanbeconductedfrom crewexperiencesregardingtheseissues.Wedocumentthe
within the pressurized environment of the SEV (i.e. IVAs, procedures adopted for Desert RATS 2010 and the crew
or intravehicular activities) using a suite of cameras and perspectives on this aspect of field science operations,
other sensors mounted on the SEV [3]. The crew can also describe our lessons learned, and offer recommendations
conduct extravehicular activities (EVAs) for geologic field- forfutureanalogtestsandplanetarymissions.
work through the use of rear-mounted ‘‘suitport’’ hatches
that allow quick egress and ingress, greatly increasing the 2. Fieldgeologyinaplanetaryexplorationcontext
flexibilityandefficiencyofEVAswhileenablingthecrewto
recoverandprepareforthenextEVAandmakeobservations Among the primary science motivations for planetary
intheshirtsleeveenvironmentoftheSEV[2,4]. exploration is to decipher the development of the solar
Desert RATS 2010 took place between 31 August and system, a history that is documented in the geologic
13September2010and includedtwopairsofcrews,each records of planetary bodies. The geological sciences,
consisting of an engineer/commander and an experienced therefore, lay the foundation for fundamental questions
field geologist. Three of the engineer/commanders were regarding the chemical, biological, and geodynamic evo-
experienced astronauts with at least one Space Shuttle lutionofplanets,and,becauseofthis,expertiseingeology
flight, and the four field geologists were drawn from the willbeacriticalskillsetforcrewedplanetaryexploration
scientific community (both academia and NASA). Two missions [9]. Previous Desert RATS field tests have
crewmembers lived in, drove, and worked from each SEV demonstrated the value of including trained field geolo-
forasingleweek,witha‘‘shiftchange’’onday7,resultingin gistsonplanetaryexplorationcrews[2,4,10],aswasalso
a total of eight test subjects for the two week period. The thecasewithSchmittonApollo17[9].
field test was designed to execute geologic traverses Observation is the primary role of all field geologists,
throughaterrainofcindercones,lavaflowsandunderlying including those on a planetary exploration crew. Geologic
sedimentaryunitsintheSanFranciscovolcanicfieldnorth observations reported verbally and supported by imagery,
of Flagstaff, Arizona. Prior to the test, a series of traverses andtheevolvingconceptualcontextbuiltaroundthem,are
wereplannedinconjunctionwiththeU.S.GeologicSurvey themostimportantdatastreamthatwillberelayedtoEarth.
AstrogeologyBranchusingtechniquesthatwerefirstdevel- Itisthroughtheseobservationsandinterpretationsthatthe
oped during Apollo [5,6]. The traverses were designed to geologiccontextandhistoryofafieldsitewillbedocumen-
simulate a reconnaissance investigation of a planetary tedandinvestigated.Fieldobservationsalsosupportsample
surface with a variety of communications and operational collection, a necessary, but usually secondary, task in field
constraints. For example, three days of each week were geology. While samples are vital for quantitative chemical,
tested with the SEVs in continuous communications (CC) isotopic,andotheranalyses,thequalityofthosesamples,and
withmission operationsteam,andthree dayswere tested oftheresultingdatasets,ishighlydependentontheobserva-
with communications only for (cid:2)1h in the morning and tionsmadeinthefield.Mostimportantly,thoseobservations
(cid:2)1h at the end of the traverse day (2/D). Similarly, the providethevitalcontextrequiredtomeaningfullyinterpret
SEVs were tested in two operational modes: lead-and- thesamples,thedataderivedfromthem,andtheirrelation-
follow(L&F)anddivide-and-conquer(D&C).See[1]inthis ship to other samples and to geologic processes. Therefore,
issueforadetaileddiscussionoftheDesertRATSseriesof it is important to realize that field observations contribute
tests,includingthe2010test,andreferto[7]inthisissue information that samples alone would not. For example, a
for a discussion of the crew perspectives on the effect of given suite of samples without context cannot inform the
these operational and communications modalities on geologist about the fundamental geometric and structural
sciencecapabilities. relationships traditionally captured on a geologic map. For
Fromascienceoperationsperspective,themainobjec- these reasons, terrestrial field geologists have long appre-
tiveofDesertRATShasbeentoexaminethefunctionsofa ciatedthecomplementarybalancebetweenobservationand
sciencesupportteam,therolesofgeologistcrewmembers, samplecollectionforunderstandingthegeologichistoryofa
and the protocols, tools, and technologies needed for site,aswellastheprocessesbehindit.Therefore,thewayin
effective data collection, data transfer, and curation of which observational information is documented, organized,
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015
J.M.HurtadoJr.etal./ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]] 3
transferred,displayed,andintegratedwithallotherdataisof exploration philosophy at the heart of some robotic
theutmostimportanceforplanetaryexploration. exploration missions such as the Mars Exploration Rovers
To date, planetary exploration by humans has been [15]. Even with their strict timelines, the Apollo astronauts
focused heavily on sample collection and with great wereabletoprofitablyimproviseattimes.Forexample,Scott
success.Forexample,thesixApollomissionstothemoon andIrwinduringEVA1onApollo15surreptitiouslycollected
returned382kgofmaterial[11]fromwhichfundamental the ‘‘seatbelt basalt’’ (sample 15415) at the unplanned
scientific discoveries are still being made. To accomplish Station3[11,12].Scott’sgeologictrainingallowedhimto
their fieldwork, the Apollo astronauts followed highly realizethepotentialinterestthissampleheld,andonlyan
choreographed field protocols during tightly scheduled immediate, on-the-scene decision to stop allowed that
EVAs that were generally scheduled to the minute [11]. sampletobecollected,whichwasfortunatebecausethat
These activities were necessarily focused on directed, sampleprovedtobeoneofthebestexamplesofvesicular
contextual sampling, rather than local- to regional-scale mare basalt collected during Apollo. Science operations
observations,asituationdrivenprimarilybytimelimitations protocolsforthefuturemustrecognizetheneedforsuch
imposed by EVA consumables and other mission logistical flexibility and therefore reasonably allow for improvisa-
considerations. Nevertheless, several of the Apollo crews, tionwithintheconstraintsofthemission.
whoalmostentirelycomprisednon-geologists,distinguished Even when done opportunistically, sample collection
themselves with the observations they made. For example, is important, but only if done carefully and judiciously.
David Scott and Jim Irwin on Apollo 15 insisted on an For example, some samples obtained by Alan Bean at the
innovative ‘‘stand-up’’ EVA prior to their three surface end of EVA2 on Apollo 12 were semi-randomly collected
traverses [11,12]. The stand-up EVA, conducted by Scott without sample bags or contextual photography [11,16].
whilestandinginsidethelunarmodulewithhisheadoutside This has limited their usefulness because they cannot be
the top hatch, established local and regional context using reliablyplacedintospecific,site-levelgeologiccontext.Itis
photographyandverbaldescriptionsoftheHadleyApennine alsoimportanttoensurethatcollectingopportunisticsam-
landingsite. The voice transcriptsof these descriptions and ples,whichcanbedoneoccasionally,doesnotcomeatthe
the accompanying photographs (e.g. Apollo Lunar Surface cost of not collecting ‘‘average’’ samples that are more
Journal; [11]) have proved invaluable for interpreting what representativeofthegeologyofasite.Worthwhilesampling
wasseenandcollectedattheEVAStationsvisitedlateronin takescarefulconsiderationofvariousotherissues,including
themission. well developed, testable hypotheses; proper and complete
Future human exploration of planetary surface will characterization of context; a balance between time spent
advance beyond what was achieved by Apollo with new sampling versus observing; degree of redundancy; volume
approachesthatplaceasmuchemphasisonobservationas and mass limitations; and the capacity of ‘‘high-grading’’
onsampling.Thestrategiesformakingscienceobservations (prioritizing) samples at mission’s end. Most important,
andcollectingsamplesinthesemissionsmustalsoembrace though, is the notionthat sample collectionmust be done
thenotionof‘‘flexecution’’,orflexibleexecution[9,13,14]. withapurpose,i.e.totestwelldevelopedhypothesesandto
Inthisway,hypothesis-drivenscienceobjectivesareclearly serveasareferenceforfuturemeasurementsandcompar-
defined,buttheyarealsosubjecttocontinualmodification, isontootherfieldsites.Otherwise,thecollectedsamples
asisthetimelineduringwhichthefieldactivitiesdesigned become a very expensive hobby rock collection, rather
to meet those objectives are conducted. This is a funda- thanacontributortoagreaterscientificunderstanding.In
mentally different approach from Apollo. As described by the following sections we describe how each of these
HodgesandSchmitt[8],flexecutionisthestandardconcept issues were approached for Desert RATS 2010 and the
ofoperationforterrestrialfieldgeologistsandshouldserve insightsthecrewsgained.
as the model for how planetary field geology is done.
Flexecutionpowerfullyenablestheexperiencedfieldgeol- 3. DesertRATS2010fieldgeologyprotocols
ogist toadapt her conceptualmodelof the science simul-
taneously with her operational plan for how to collect ThetraverseplanningprocessforDesertRATS2010is
scientific data in real time as new observational data is described in detail by Horz et al. [5] and Skinner and
collected. At the least, the result is a traverse specifically Fortezzo [6], both in this issue, and resulted in the pre-
andefficientlyfocusedontheproblemathand,and,ideally, selection of EVA Stations as well as definition of science
this leads to enhanced scientific understanding and the priorities at these Stations and the drives in between
ability to adapt to unanticipated discoveries and other (for definitions of the terms traverse, drive, Station, and
scientificandoperationalopportunitiesandchallenges. EVAusedhere,seealso[7]inthisissue).Theseplanswere
Recognizingthatmanyfieldsciencediscoveriesarethe theninterpretedandexecutedinrealtimebythecrewsin
productofserendipity–oftenbecausetraversesdesigned concert with their Science Backrooms (the subset of the
fromremotelysenseddatalacklocalcontextualinformation Science Team that supported the crew during CC, for
from the ground, and, as such, cannot be planned – details, see [7,17] in this issue). Since the crewmembers
flexecutionallowstheterrestrialfieldgeologisttoeffectively have de-facto final authority for science activities, it is
exploit scientific targets of opportunity as they arise. critical that the crews be well briefed on the science
Traverse planning and reconnaissance can never capture objectivesandoperationalmodes[7]andwelltrainedin
the full spectrum of possibilities, so having the ability theuseoftheprovidedtools[18]andtheexpectedfield
to positively react to the unanticipated is crucial for procedures. In this section, we describe the Desert RATS
planetary field geology as well. Interestingly, this is an 2010 EVA field procedures as executed by the crews
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015
4 J.M.HurtadoJr.etal./ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]]
Fig.1. Flowchartssummarizingthefieldgeologyprotocolsfollowedduringthe2010DesertRATSfieldtest.Sections1and2denoteactivitiescarriedout
priortoEVAs.Sections3and4enumeratetheproceduresfollowedforgeologicobservationsandforsamplecollectionduringEVAs,respectively.Sections
5and6showtheactivitiesdoneattheendofanEVA.
(Fig. 1). These were designed from the perspective of is done to ensure that high-resolution photography is
capturing as much contextual data as possible for the capturedoftheentireareatobevisitedbythecrewsothat
proper curation of collected samples. Similar protocols samples and observations canbe putinspatialcontext. In
were followed to document generic field observations. thisway,theGigaPanisanalogoustothephotographicbase
The entire process of conducting field geology during for an outcrop map. After GigaPan image acquisition has
EVAsisheavilytechnology-dependent,includingcommu- beeninitiated,thecrewmakesfinalpreparationstoegress,
nications/telemetry and tools. Young et al. [18] in this first ensuring that the GigaPan is successfully acquiring
issuegivemoredetailsaboutthecrews’experienceswith (a consideration during 2/D communications when the
toolswhileonEVA. Science Backroom could not intervene) and that all SEV
camerasare switched to Science Backroomcontrol. In this
3.1. IVAproceduresforgeologicobservationsand way,theScienceBackroomcantrackthecrewastheywork
EVAplanning usingthelivevideofeeds.Similarly,theScienceBackroom
(during CC) has the ability to capture additional GigaPan
EVA operations begin during the drive towards a mosaicsdocumentingtheprogressoftheEVAactivities.
Station,duringwhichtimethegeologistreviewsthesite Finally,whilethecrewmembersareonthesuitportsat
objectives and develops a preliminary plan for the EVA the rear of the SEV finishing the egress procedures, the
basedonwhatcanbeseenfirsthandfromtheSEV.During geologistandastronautdoapre-briefingoftheEVAplan
CC operations, this is done over the voice loop in colla- with each other and make further observations of the
boration with the Science Backroom, but during 2/D geologiccontextoftheStation.Thisconversationbetween
operations the geologists on each SEV work together to crewmembersisnotcaptured inaCFN,butisdoneover
develop their plans [7], documenting the process using the voice loop so that the Science Backroom can partici-
IVACrewFieldNotes(CFNs;seealso[18,19]inthisissue). pate when CC is available. Pre-positioning of the SEV
Whether on CC or 2/D, the geologist also records an IVA before egress is important in this respect as ideally the
CFNdocumentingthegeologyoftheStationandtheirEVA suitports are pointed in the direction of the outcrop so
planpriortoarrival. thatobservationscanbemadewhilethecrewiswaiting
Once on Station, and prior to egress, the geologist forthepre-EVAleakcheckstocomplete.
initiatesaGigaPan–ahigh-resolution,upto3601panora- These pre-EVA activities done from within the SEV (or
micphotomosaicobtainedusingaroboticcameramounted fromthe suitport)are criticalsteps as they are the oppor-
ontheSEV[20]–thatincludestheplannedEVAsite(s).This tunityforthecrewtocharacterizethesiteatalargescale,to
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015
J.M.HurtadoJr.etal./ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]] 5
detail their plan of action, and to establish the context for includes spatial and operational metadata for context.
their geologic fieldwork, including samples to be collected Theseallowsimpleplacementofthegeologicinformation
andtheirlocations.Makingasmanyobservationsaspossi- within the framework of the EVA timeline and spatial
ble before embarking on the EVA saves precious time and extentsothat,forexample,samplescouldbereferencedto
consumablesandresultsinaninitialplanfortheEVAthat thecontextimagerytakenfromtheSEV(e.g.theGigaPans)
ensuresthefieldworkisfocusedandefficient. andtheCFNscouldbeinterpretedinachronologicorder.
3.2. EVAproceduresforgeologicobservations 3.4. ProceduresforsamplestowageandEVAcloseout
Terrestrial geologists have the luxuries of time and At the end of the EVA, a complete inventory is taken
mobilitywhiledoingfieldworkthatarenotentirelyshared before stowing the samples on the SEV. With all the
by a planetary field geologist/astronaut. Once the EVA has bagged samples arrayed on the aft deck of the SEV, so
started,thereisafiniteandrelativelyshortamountoftime that the sample numbers are visible, an EVA CFN listing
attheStationforaccomplishingtheobjectives,whichiswhy all the samples is recorded. This was an informal proce-
the time spent pre-planning (see Section 3.1) is critical for dure that was initiated by the week 1 crew and soon
ensuring efficiency and success. Similarly, the procedures made a standard part of the EVA for all crews. Once the
and tools for recording observations and for collecting CFNiscomplete,thebaggedsamplesaregatheredintoa
samples(seeSection3.3)aredesignedwiththelimitations daily collection bag, which is then weighed and stowed
of planetary fieldwork (e.g. writing in a field notebook is in a storage receptacle on the SEV aft deck [18]. These
not possible ina spacesuit) and the constraints of the EVA sampleinventoriesareusefulforlocatingsamplesatthe
timelineinmind[18]. endofthemissionandalsoforlocatingsamplesfor‘‘high-
Both SEV crewmembers are expected to maintain a grading’’and/orin-situanalysisinthesurfacehabitat[21].
runningcommentaryoftheirobservationsandothernon- They have also proved valuable for reconstructing the
sampling activities throughout the EVA during both CC samples collected at Stations for which all other docu-
and 2/D scenarios in order to keep both the Science mentationwaslostduetotelemetry,communications,or
Backroom and their partner apprised of their progress. otherdatatransferproblems[22].
Sincethecrewmembersshareasinglevoiceloopwhileon Similarly,averbaloverviewofthegeologicobservations
EVA,itisimportantthattheycoordinatesothattheydo made by both crewmembers during the EVA and hypoth-
notinterferewitheachother’sverbalcommunicationand esesonhowthoseobservationsfitintothelargergeologic
commentary.DuringCC,butnotduring2/D,therunning pictureisrecordedattheendoftheEVA.Theexactwaythis
commentary done over the voice loop is interpreted and was done varied from geologist-to-geologist during Desert
recorded/transcribedinreal-timebytheScienceBackroom. RATS2010.EverycrewmemberrecordedanEVACFNeither
This commentary is accompanied by a low-resolution before or after the sample inventory, as time allowed,
live video feed captured by one of the two cameras on usually followed by a detailed summary as an IVA CFN
the simulated spacesuit backpacks that the crewmembers once the crew had ingressed the SEV. In addition, most of
wear[18].DuringbothCCand2/D,thecrewmembersalso thecrewalsorecordedtheseoverviewsintextandspread-
have the option of capturing r3-min long EVA CFNs sheetdocumentsontheonboardcomputerintheSEV,often
intended for high-priority download and analysis by the during drives between Stations. It should be pointed out,
ScienceTeamattheendofthemissionday.TheEVACFNs however,thatthesedatafileswereunderutilizedsincethe
are recorded using the second, high-definition, camera on Science Team was not always aware of where they were
thecrewbackpacks,alongwithacuff-computer-controlled stored(seeSection4.3;[7,18]inthisissue).
voiceannotationsystem[18].
3.3. EVAproceduresforsamplecollection 3.5. ImprovisedIVAandEVAfieldprocedures
While on EVA, each sample is collected in a particular Overthecourseofthe2010fieldtest,otherprocedures
manner using a variety of tools, including a rock hammer, related to sample and data collection that differed from
shovel,tongs,core-tube,andTeflonsamplebags,althoughit the protocol lists given to the crewfor the mission were
isimportanttonotethatthecrewlackedahandlens,oneof improvisedandadopted.Twooftheseadaptedprocedures
the most basic tools used by a field geologist (for details aredescribedhere.
see [18] in this issue). As with geologic observations, each
sampleisdocumentedusingboththereal-timevideo/audio 3.5.1. ‘‘Grab-bag’’sampling
telemetry (particularly during CC) as well as with an EVA All of the crewmembers eventually adopted a bag
CFN video clip (during both CC and 2/D). The procedural clippedtotheirwaistsforcarryingbaggedsampleswhile
checklistforcollectingsamplesisenumeratedinFig.1. on EVA instead of the supplied tool/sample caddy [18].
In the case of both sample documentation and stand- As a consequence, they also had a convenient receptacle
alonegeologicobservations,contextualdetailsarecritical in which to put ‘‘grab’’ samples. These were rocks, most
andeachcrewdevisedtheirownsemi-formalchecklistof oftenfoundinfloat,that,foronereasonoranotherlooked
itemstonote(seeFig.1forexamples).Inadditiontothe visuallyinterestingandwerepickedupopportunistically.
requisite geologic data about the stratigraphic and struc- Because they were picked up at odd times during the
tural relationships observed in the field, this checklist EVA–e.g.whileonalongwalkingtraverseoratthevery
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015
6 J.M.HurtadoJr.etal./ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]]
end of the EVA in the hurry back to the SEV – these acriticalconsideration.Thecrewmustcontinuouslybalance
samplesweretypicallynotbaggedordocumentedfollow- thetimeusedtocollectmultiplesamplesversusthetimeto
ing the standard protocol (Section 3.3), although the bestcharacterizeanoutcropand,asaresult,perhapscollect
crews did make efforts to document them as time fewer, yet higher-quality, samples. In addition, if the crew
allowed,whichwastypicallyahastyCFNrecordedwhile chooses to spend more time at a particularly interesting
walking.Nospecificandconsistentprocedurewasdevel- site, they must also sacrifice time somewhere else in that
opedforthisstyleofsamplecollection,however. day’s traverse. These decisions to focus on observation or
sample collection at any given EVA Station are made in
3.5.2. Geologicmapping real-timebasedonthescienceobjectivesandthefirst-hand
Many of the SEV systems are dual-purpose [3]. For observations of the crewmembers. These decisions are
example,theonboardcamerasareusedforscienceobserva- interdependent onotherconsiderations,includingduplica-
tions by both the crew and the Science Team, but also for tionofeffort(Section4.2),theamountandtypesofsamples
missionoperationspurposessuchasnavigationandhazard and observations obtained (Section 4.3), and the use of
avoidance. Similarly, the Google Earth navigation system is tools/technologies[18].
used for driving the SEV as well as for displaying maps The decision of when to collect a sample and when
showing communications coverage and the preplanned not to can also affect the way mission success is mea-
traverseroutes. suredfromascienceperspective(Section4.4).Intermsof
The week 2 crewmembers made additional use of the mission success, thevalueof geologic observationsmust
camera and navigation systems for rudimentary geologic be recognized as (at least) equal and complementary to
mapping.Forexample,tosupplementthevoiceandcamera thevalueoftangiblegeologicspecimens.Thisisonlythe
imagery included in the end-of-EVA CFNs, the GigaPan case, however, when there is an appropriate balance
mosaics were annotated using the available ‘‘snapshot’’ between sampling and observation, as the quality of the
tools [20] to graphically illustrate the route taken on the formerisdirectlydependentonthelatter.Inthiscontext,
outcrop(s)andtheexactlocationofcollectedsamples.These there is a distinction to be made between poor-quality
rudimentaryoutcropmapswereproducedatmoststations samples and samples collected poorly. A poor-quality
duringweek2andwerewellreceivedbytheScienceTeam sampleisonethatis,forexample,lithologicallyunsuita-
asatangibleincreaseinproductivityascomparedtoduring ble for the purposes intended or the question to be
week 1 (when the crewmembers were not aware of this answered (e.g. it is weathered versus fresh, it is the
electroniccapability).AtanotherStation,aneffortwasalso incorrectunit,etc.).Apoorly-collectedsamplemeansthat
made,usingGoogleEarthasarudimentaryGIS(geographic time was mismanaged so that more samples were col-
information system), to produce a KML-format overlay lectedattheexpenseofnotdocumentingthemcorrectly,
showing the geologic contacts and a suspected fault that rushing to collect rocks before fully understanding their
wereobserved,essentiallyasimplegeologicmap. context. Both are to be avoided and the way to do so is
to include well-trained field geologists on a planetary
4. Crewinsightsandlessonslearned exploration crew and for them to take the time to care-
fullydocumentasitebeforesampling.Thereverseisalso
Herewediscusssomeinsightsgainedbythecrewmem- true,particularlygiventhetimeandlogisticalconstraints
bers into best practices for planetary fieldwork that were imposedonthegeologistduringanEVA.Becauseitisalso
the result of performing the geologic observation and important for the mission that samples be collected, the
sample collection tasks during the 2010 field-test. It is planetary field geologist must be enabled to be decisive,
important to note that these depend strongly on the make concise and cogent observations, and work in a
durationandgoalofthemission.DesertRATShassimulated well-informed and purposeful manner. Overall, doing
7–14-day missions on destinations such as the Moon. Our fieldwork without purpose is a problem, which is why
lessons learned and the recommendations (Section 5) that analog tests like Desert RATS are important for helping
stemfromthemarevalidwithinthatframework.However, traincrewstoseethepurposebehindwhattheydointhe
forlongermissiondurationsandforotherdestinations,such field,bothscientificallyandoperationally.
asanear-earthasteroid,theresultscouldbedifferent. Mission plans, field protocols, and tools should be
designed to properly enable decision-making to support
4.1. TimemanagementonEVA an effective balance between geologic observations made
and samples collected. For Desert RATS 2010, one opera-
Given the protocols described in Section 3, it takes tional strategy we found that worked was to create a
approximately10mintocollecteachrocksample.Thisis sampling plan during the IVA period and prior to the
a relatively large time resource commitment, given that boots-on-the-groundEVAwheninthesuitport(seeproto-
mostEVAsduringDesertRATS2010werebetween30and colsdescribedinSection3).Havingapreliminarystrategyin
60min in length. Moreover, a significant percentage of placebeforeEVAminimizedsearchingtheoutcropwhileon
these10minarecommittedpriortopickinguptherock(i.e. EVA, maximizing the balance between observations and
takingcontextimagery,etc.).Thisisparticularlychallenging samples, and it also prepared us for making real time
iftherearemultiplegeologicunitsandcontactstodescribe decisions and changes to the plan as the EVA progressed
andsampleatagivenEVAStation.Theremayalsobealot (i.e.flexecution).Anotherstrategythecrewsexperimented
ofgroundtocoverataspatiallyextensiveortopographically with was to either work together or split up on EVA. For
ruggedEVAStation.Therefore,timemanagementonEVAis example,sometimeswe chose tostayclose together,with
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015
J.M.HurtadoJr.etal./ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]] 7
one crewmember taking context imagery while the other significant problem to manage unless the storage con-
describedthesamples[19].Atothertimes,wesplitup,with straintsofthespacecraftareaugmentedorproceduressuch
bothcrewmemberstravelingrelativelyfarfromtheSEVand assamplecachingorin-situ‘‘high-grading’’[21]areimple-
each other (in accordance with flight rules) to cover more mented. In addition, using assets such as the Pressurized
ground [19]. Even with these strategies, we found room Excursion Module (PEM)/GeoLab [21] for in-situ analyses
for improvement in the sample documentation protocols. and/orroboticfollow-up[23],‘‘excess’’samplesthatcannot
In addition, while meticulously recording geologic context bereturnedtoEarthcanstillbeofscientificvalue,particu-
andcarefullyisolatingasamplearecritical,theyaretime- larlyifsufficientlydocumentedupontheircollection,sothat
consumingprocedures.Weofferrecommendationsregard- theresourcesusedtoobtainthemdidnotgotowaste.
ingtheseissuesinSection5. The detrimental effect duplication has on time and
sciencereturnremainsanotherimportantissue.Unnecessary
andexcessiveduplicationoffieldworkwastesEVAtime,with
4.2. Duplicationofeffort potentiallylittlebenefittoscienceoutcomes.Alternatively,a
limiteddegreeofduplicationmayinfactbetolerable,ifnot
Formissionswheremultipleroversandcrewmembers beneficial. For example, some duplication may retire the
conduct geologic fieldwork on EVA, duplication of effort scientific risk of losing critical samples in the unfortunate
mayoccurwithrespecttoobservationsmadeandsamples event of some sort of mission failure or to ensure that
collected. This could negatively affect the use of the material remains for vital laboratory work. Although not
precious resources of time, bandwidth, data storage, and doneduringDesertRATS2010,contingencysamplesforthis
physicalstowagespace(e.g.volumeandmassallowances) purpose were collected by each Apollo mission at their
(see Section 4.3). While we do notdeny that minimizing landingsitesasthefirsttaskuponegressingfromthelunar
unnecessary duplication is worthwhile, we can identify module[11].Asituationwhereduplicationretiredscientific
waysofmitigatingitandevenuseitasanadvantage. riskduringDesertRATS2010stemmedfromtheinter-crew
At first, it may seem that duplication of effort could be communicationlimitationexperiencedduring2/D-L&FEVAs.
used as a measure of crew effectiveness in analog tests Since, without continual coordination, duplication of effort
(seeSection4.4),asitmightsuggestpoortraverseplanning was inevitable, the conservative course of action was to
or the need for more coordination among the crews. How- comprehensively sample. The understanding is that it is
ever,wearguethatthisisnotnecessarilyagoodmetricto better to have duplication than to have one crew assume
use in either a training/simulation or real mission scenario. theotherhassampledaunitwhen,infact,noonedid.
Forexample,amoreimportantcauseofpotentialduplication Duplicationofsampleswillcertainlybeofvalue,ifnot
ofeffortduringDesertRATS2010wasthecommunications required,forsomescienceobjectives.Forexample,multi-
architecture.GiventhecommunicationsstructureforEVAs,it plespecimensofthesamegeologicmaterialatanumber
wasimpossibleforthetwoSEVcrewsonEVAtoknowwhat of scales may be needed to determine lateral or vertical
theotheronewasdoingoncetheywereoutoftheirvehicles: variabilitynotvisiblyapparentinthefield(e.g.isotopicor
one crew could not talk to their counterparts on the other geochemical trends). Similarly, some analytical methods
crew over the voice loop (only face-to-face communication (e.g. geochronology/thermochronology) often benefit from
was possible and only when the crews were in very close multiple,independentsamples,eitherfromthesameplace
proximity). Since on 2/D-L&F days the SEVs worked in the or from different places. Others may require replicate
samegeneralarea,itwaslikelythatthesameunitswouldbe analysesforstatisticalpurposes.
sampledandsimilarobservationswouldbemade. With respect to duplication of observational data
In the context of the 2010 field test, the available data collected, field geology has always enjoyed the benefit
storage and bandwidth on the SEV proved sufficient to of multiple perspectives on problems. Having observa-
handle the volume of observations and associated digital tionaldataaboutthesamefeatureorunitfrommorethan
data. We point out, though, that the only instruments we one crewmember can provide important insights into
used were cameras, so this assessment does not consider processes [7]. In fact, this mode of making complemen-
theeffectsoffutureincorporationofhigh-bandwidthtools tary observations, and thereby feeding the collaborative
suchasLiDAR(lightdetectionandranging),visible-infrared process of developing multiple working hypotheses, is a
spectrometers,orgeochemicalinstruments.However,given cornerstoneofgeologicfieldwork.
theinfrastructureconceptsthatweretested,wefoundthat
duplicationofobservationaldatadidnotposeaseriousdata
management problem, although telemetering of that data 4.3. Storageconsiderations
wasfraughtwithotherdifficulties(seeSection4.3;[7,18]in
this issue). In contrast, storage of samples was somewhat Each crewmember sampled approximately the same
logistically problematic in terms of the mass and volume number/massofsamples,andnoneofthecrewmembers
constraints of the SEV (see Section 4.3). Part way through took an excessive number of samples compared to what
bothweek1andweek2,additionalsamplebagshadtobe would be collected during terrestrial fieldwork [24].
suppliedtothecrewandsampleshadtobeoffloadedfrom However it is important to note that potential stowage
theSEVtomakeroomforadditionalones,operationsthat constraintsdoexistastheyrelatetoduplicationofeffort
wereconductedoutsideofthesimulation.Forarealmission (seeSection4.2),andtheywillalsobelimitingfactorson
thatmayoperateonstricterandtighterlogisticalmargins, theindividualsizes of samplescollected(i.e. sample bag
this suggests that any duplication of samples may be a volume) and the total number of samples collected per
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015
8 J.M.HurtadoJr.etal./ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]]
EVA or per mission (i.e. volume of sample stowage nonexistent[21,22].Nevertheless,thefactthatsomesamples
containersontherover)[18]. willalwayslikelybeobtainedoutsidetheestablishedproto-
Theseconstraintshaveimplicationsforgeologicfield- cols (e.g. the Apollo 15 ‘‘seatbelt basalt’’; Section 2; [12])
work protocols and the selection and collection of sam- requires that flexibility be built-in to the documentation
ples.Forexample,withthe17.78(cid:3)22.86cm2(7-inchby procedures. This has implications for technology, as the
9-inch)bagsusedduringDesertRATS2010,thecrewhad infrastructure for rapidly and reliably documenting and
to ensure that the pieces of rock they collected fit in a taggingsamplesmustbethere[18].
singlebagsincethecuratorialinfrastructuredidnoteasily With regard to non-sample science products, e.g.
supportkeepingtrackofsamplesstoredinmultiplebags. observations, the crew experience with data volume
In addition, the sampling strategy in one field area may (bandwidth, etc.) during fieldwork showed that there
focus onthecollection of rockand soil sampleswhereas was ample capacity for handing the data files, although
other field sites, on simulated or real missions, may the inclusion of scientific instruments in the future will
require different handling of other types of materials undoubtedlytestthelimitsofthetelemetry.Onmultiple
(e.g. liquids, biological, etc.). For example, Desert RATS occasions, procedural oversights hampered the optimal
incorporated some aspect of this in the form of the core useofsomeofthesedatafilessincetheScienceTeamwas
tubesamples[18]collectedonatleastoneEVAperweek, not always cognizant of the fact that these files, such as
and several varieties of specialized sample containers end-of-day Excel spreadsheets, were produced or where
(e.g. the Special Environmental Sample Container) were theywerestored.Thishighlightsthecriticalneedfordata
fielded on the Apollo missions [11]. Hence the sample collection procedures to specify not only what data is to
bag/receptacle design directly puts limitations on the berecordedbutalsowhereitistobestoredandhowitis
typesandamountsofsamplescollectedandtheeventual tobeaccessed,sothatnothingislostorleftout.Theother
use ofthosesamples.This in,turn,hasa directeffecton principal technological bottlenecks during Desert RATS
the procedures used to collect the materials. In the case 2010 arose from communications difficulties with the
of rock samples, the bag size also affects EVA time as ScienceBackroomduringCCandfromdesignandperfor-
breaking a sample of an appropriate size takes time, manceissueswiththetools(e.g.suitcameras,cuffinter-
particularly if it is a piece liberated directly from solid face, etc.) as described by Young et al. [18]. As with the
outcrop. This, in turn, affects the bag design itself as the design of sample bags and other tools, improvements to
sharp edges on freshly broken surfaces can abrade or cut thesetechnologieswillrequireadjustmentstothegeolo-
opensamplebags,potentiallyleadingtocross-contamination gicdatacollectionprocedures.
orlossofvaluablematerial[18].
Future field tests and actual missions may include 4.4. Metricsformissionevaluation
larger sample bags that allowfor larger and morescien-
tifically versatile samples [18], decisions that will be The crewmembers have the responsibility to conduct
driven by the science community’s minimum and max- investigations that achieve the science objectives while
imum sample size requirements. Such (larger) samples operatingwithintheframeworkofthetraverse/EVAplans
may be used to illustrate particular, scale-dependent (i.e. timeline) and the field protocols. The question then
structures or textural features (e.g. ripple marks on becomes: how is their science productivity defined and
sandstone) or to provide enough material for particular measured?Severalmetricsandnumericalapproachesare
kindsofanalyses,althoughitisimportanttokeepinmind possible(e.g.[22,25,26],inthisissue),including(butnot
that such samples are often made superfluous if the limited to) the degree to which the daily objectives are
appropriate geologic relationships are documented at met, the incremental increase in science understanding,
thelargerscale.Tobestusewhateverstoragecapabilities or a more quantitative measure such as the number of
areavailable,though,samplingprocedureswillneedtobe samples collected. The former two may more effectively
developed to guide the crew in choice of sample size capture the importance of geologic fieldwork, including
given the intended use of the material. This will require observation, but are difficult to quantify and are subjec-
thatthecrewbefamiliarwithwhateverPI-drivenscience tive. The number of samples, while easily quantifiable,
requirementshaveshapedtheEVAandtraverseplans[7] does not fully capture the science value of any or all
andwillrequirespecializedtraininginthepropercollec- samples and neglects the aspects of geologic fieldwork
tion of samples intended for specialized purposes (e.g. thatarenotconcernedwithsamples.
oriented samples, environmentally-sensitive samples, Whileitistemptingtouseasimple,quantitativemetric
etc.)orforsamplingotherwiseunexpectedfinds. likethenumberandweightofsamplescollected,ourprior
As described by Young et al. [18], stowage and trans- geologicalexperienceshowsthatitisverysiteandmission
portoftoolswerealsoproblematicandimpactedgeologic dependent.Moreover,ourexperiencewithDesertRATShas
fieldwork protocols. A particular innovation to the sam- suggestedtousthatanoveremphasisonsamplingversus
plingprotocolsthatwasfacilitatedbytheresultingadoption fundamentalobservation,letalonethenumberofsamples
ofclipped-onbagswasthe‘‘grabsample’’(seeSection3.5.1). collected,canleadtoartificialpressuresthatresultinthe
While the number of samples collected in this manner is selection of poorly chosen samples and inadequate doc-
small and had a negligible effect on timeline or space umentation given the strict time constraints of an EVA.
considerations, it remains to be seen what the scientific Mostimportantly,itignoresthe overridingimportance of
value of such materials is, especially when documenta- context and the value of a single ‘‘perfect’’ sampleversus
tion and contextual information at times were sparse to several‘‘imperfect’’ones(Section4.1).
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015
J.M.HurtadoJr.etal./ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]] 9
Mission planners and evaluators must understand a foronecrewtobeupdatedonexactlywhattheotherends
necessary interplay between careful observations and updoinguntilitistoolate.
judicious sampling and that time spent observing, as
opposed to sampling, is not time wasted. Time spent 5.2. Fieldprotocols
making the important geologic observations and charac-
terizing context is valuable if it results in a properly Some modifications to the field geology protocols
documented sample that meets the requirements of the mayhelptofacilitatetimemanagementwhilepromoting
ScienceTeam,evenif fewersamplesarecollected.There the collection of better-quality observations and better-
must not be bias towardsthe notion that thenumber of documented samples. Principal among these is to adjust
samples and the degree of geologic duplication are the theprotocols(andEVAtimeline)toincludetimetoensure
most useful metrics for crew performance and science thatanoutcropisthoroughlyevaluatedpriortocommit-
return. tingtoasample.Thegeologistcanusethistimetobetter
examineand‘‘pre-sample’’anoutcrop(e.g.chipoffsome
5. Recommendations pieces,takeacloselookatthemineralogyandstructure,
traceanylateralorverticalheterogeneities,etc.).Because
Based on the experiences of the 2010 Desert RATS the pre-sampling activities need not be formally docu-
geologists,thefollowingrecommendationsareoffered. mented (although the running commentary should be
preserved), the geologist would have the opportunity to
5.1. Timeandtaskmanagement focus on the outcrop and to make a reliable first assess-
ment before initiating the documentation process and
Toallowcrewstooptimallymanagetheirtimeinthe committing the time to take a sample. In the adjusted
field, they must have as much information as possible protocol, the sample documentary process would only
abouttheentiretraverseandeachEVAStationinadvance. begin after a good sample has been identified, even
This should include detailed traverse plans before even potentially extracted. This may require the necessity for
arrivingatthelandingsiteandthemaximumamountof imagery of pristine, in-situ samples prior to sampling to
data while in the SEV. The Apollo crews, for example, berelaxed.Ifnecessary,suchimagerycould,inprinciple,
wereimmersedintheplans,images,maps,andotherdata beeasilyreconstructedfromthevideoarchiveoftheEVA,
for their landing sites to the point they were intimately provided that the crew captures a few seconds of sta-
familiar with every detail before the mission launched. tionaryandstablevideoofanysitethattheyhitwiththe
For them, this was necessary since the EVAs were so hammer. The benefit would be improved and increased
stringently designed and all but one of the astronauts science situational awareness of the geologic materials
were non-geologists. Armed with a similar amount of collected. While such an assessment is natural for the
information about what is known and how the nominal terrestrial field geologist, the time constraints on EVA
missionshouldtranspire,futureplanetarygeologistswill may pressurize even an experienced geologist into pre-
bewellpreparedtoassimilatenewobservationsobtained maturelyselectingasitefordetailedwork.Codifyingthis
in the field and re-plan accordingly to maximize the practiceintotheprotocolsmayalleviatethispressure.
sciencereturnoftheirtraversesandEVAs. An increased emphasis on geologic observation will
Ifduplicationofeffortistobeavoided,itisimportant require appropriate procedures and EVA timelines. The
thatthecrewisalwayscognizantofthescienceobjectives establishedprotocolsareausefulstartingpoint,although
sothatpropercoordinationinactivitiesismaintained.In one elaboration already adopted by the 2010 crews was
DesertRATSandinrealmissions,thiscanoccurthrough- anadditionalmentalchecklistofwhatgeologicinforma-
outtheprocessofmissionplanningandexecutionthrough tionisvitaltoincludeinCFNsforsampledocumentation
participationinthedesignoftraversesandEVAs,aswell to ensure concise and complete notes (Fig. 1). This was
as through Science Team briefings/debriefings and inter- necessitated by the relatively short (ca. 3min) length of
crewconferences.Anotherpossibilityistopre-designatea the CFN. To go beyond this, additional enabling technol-
fieldsciencelead,ageologistcrewmemberwithoversight ogies are needed in order to capture the same level of
authority over all the field geologic activities [7]. What- observations that terrestrial geologists do, for example
everorganizationalstructureisadopted,itshouldensure geologicmapdata[18].
that adequate inter-crew communication occurs during Finally, in order to facilitate flexecution, the field
the mission. To this end, crews should thoroughly sum- protocols should incorporate flexibility with the under-
marize their activities to each other, not just the Science standingthatthecrewhasbeentrainedtorecognizestops
Team,butasthedayprogresses.Similarly,theend-of-day that require improvisation and that mission success
briefings should include time for the crews to talk mayhingeoncrucialcontextualobservationsratherthan
amongst themselves in preparation for the next day of on samples alone. By placing the final decision making
work. These communications should be in the form of authorityforfieldactivitiesonthecrew,inefficienciesin
verbal communications as well as all of that day’s col- fieldwork(e.g.unnecessaryEVAsorsamples,etc.)canbe
lecteddata,includingwrittenlogs,annotatedimagery,and eliminatedandthecrewcandecidewhatitwilltaketodo
CFNs.Mostimportantlyinthiscontext,somemechanism thebestscienceandmeetmissionobjectivessuccessfully.
forthecrewstocommunicatetoeachotherduringEVAsis At the same time, this will increase the expectations
neededbecause,withoutit,itisnotpossibleforcrewsto placed upon the crew for them to pursue the correct
collaborateintheflexecutionprocessanditisnotpossible course of action, a strong argument for the inclusion of
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015
10 J.M.HurtadoJr.etal./ActaAstronautica](]]]])]]]–]]]
field geologists on planetary exploration crews. This is the drastically different logistical and operational con-
alsoastrongargumentforincludingamaximumamount straints geologist–astronauts will experience on the sur-
of geologic training for all crewmembers on a planetary faceoftheMoonoranotherplanetarybody.Forexample
missionandforcontinualengagementinmissionsimula- traditionalpencil-and-papermapsandthenewestdigital
tionssuchasDesertRATS. mapsmadeusingGISsoftware(e.g.[28])relyontheuser
drawingandwritingonamapusingapencilorstylus,so
6. Fieldgeologicconceptsforfuturemissionscenarios they are poorly-suited for work with gloved hands in a
spacesuit.Improvementstocurrentdigitalmappingmeth-
Forfutureanalogtestsandrealmissionscenarios,two odsthatallowforalternativemodesofcapturinggeospa-
field geologic concepts will need to be explored in more tialdata(e.g.voicecommands,speech-to-text,andhaptic
detail:theroleofworkdonewhileIVAandusingarobotic interfaces)andfordisplayingit(e.g.heads-upaugmented
arm; and strategies for geologic mapping on the moon reality displays) can overcome these challenges (e.g.
(orotherplanetarysurfaces).Whileneitherofthesewasa [28,29]), but the technology needs to be developed and
specificfocusofDesertRATS2010–becauseofalackof testedinfutureanalogsimulations.
aroboticarmontheSEVintheformercaseandbecause Technological challenges aside, geologic mapping was
the data collection infrastructure to support mapping operationallytestedtosomeextentinthecontextofDesert
during EVA is not yet present in the latter case – the RATS2010.Forexample,the2010DesertRATScrewmem-
2010crewmembershaveinsightsandsuggestionsregard- bersexperimentedwithrudimentaryapproachestoplane-
ingtheseissuesstemmingfromourexperiences. tarygeologicmappingbyadaptingsomeofthevarioustools
availabletous(seeSection3.5.2).Amoreextensivedemon-
6.1. IVAoperations stration of the role of geologic mapping was also done as
partofthetraverse-planningprocess[5,6].Itreliedheavily
DuringDesertRATS2010,andinallpreviousfieldtests on remotely-sensed data (i.e. GeoEye imagery in Google
withtheSEVs,observationsofthesurroundingsmadeby Earth) of the test area in an effort to replicate the type of
IV crewmembers have been essential. As part of the photogeologic mapping that would be done in support of
nominal procedure when arriving at an outcrop, context a lunar mission using image datasets such as those now
observations are done throughout the approach to and being acquired by Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO;
finalselectionofanEVAStation(seeSection3.1).Yet,even http://lunar.gsfc.nasa.gov/).Thesetofdetailedtraverseand
outside the context of an EVA Station, observations from EVA plans that formed the basis of the resulting mission
withinthevehicleareimportant.TheSEVisdesignedwith plan for Desert RATS 2010 included preliminary geologic
largeforwardwindows,includinga‘‘bubble’’window,all mapsofthearea.Thesewerestyledafterthetypesofmaps
of which afford excellent visibility. The maneuvering a crew would have on an actual planetary exploration
capabilitiesoftheSEValsoallowthepilottopositionthe mission.BoththeScienceTeamandthe2010crewmembers
vehicle very close to outcrops, and, using bubble to take found these documents, maps, and images invaluable for
photographsandmakemeso-tomicro-scaleobservations, understanding the context of the planned science opera-
many observational tasks that can be performed during tions, for executing the planned activities in the field, and
EVA can also be done while inside [2]. This can prove for making decisions regarding real-time modifications to
particularly valuable for saving mission time, by either the planned activities in response to the operational and
omittingEVAs at Stations whereIVA observationssuffice scientific circumstances encountered during the mission
tofulfillscienceobjectives,orbyallowingthecollectionof (i.e. flexecution). It is certain that this sort of pre-mission
scienceobservationsatunplannedStationswhereadding mapping will be a necessary part of future missions and
anEVAwouldbetime-prohibitive. analogsimulations,playingacentralroleintheirsuccess.
Although the SEV architecture tested in 2010 did not Traditional geologic mapping, both in the context of
includearoboticarmthatwouldallowanIVcrewmemberto pre-mission reconnaissance and field operations by the
collect samples or manipulate tools outside the vehicle, astronaut–geologists themselves, will also need to be
future versions are likely to include such devices. These adjustedformorefundamentalreasonsthantechnological
capabilitiescouldbetransformativeintheflexibilityafforded andlogisticalconsiderations.Geologicmappingisascience
toexplorationcrews.Forexample,havinganarmcouldallow andartdevelopedonEarthandisinsomewaysspecifically
samples to be collected without necessarily going EVA, adapted to the type of geology seen on Earth. Hence
allowingEVAtimetobesaved[27]and/orallowinganIVA conceptssuchasoutcrop,stratigraphy,andstructuremay
crewmember to assist EVA crewmembers with their sam- need to be adjusted somewhat for them to be better
plingandobservationtasks.Useofaroboticarmwillneedto applicabletothegeologiccircumstanceslikelyonanother
be evaluated in an operational sense during future Desert planetary body. For example, mostof the lunarsurface is
RATStests,particularlyhowitsusewouldinterfacewiththe coveredinalayerofregolithuptokilometersinthickness
otheractivitiesandproceduresdoneonEVA. [30]. Regolith is essentially broken-up and fragmented
lunar crust affected by impacts and intermixed with
6.2. Mapping impactejectafromcountlessimpactsatallscales[30].As
aresult,theregolithisverycomplex,asarethegeometric
One of the most important aspects of terrestrial field andsuperpositionalrelationshipsonewouldusetounder-
geology is geologic mapping. Traditional methods will standtherelativeagesofandgeneticprocessesresponsible
needtobeadaptedforplanetaryfieldgeologybecauseof for its components. Hypotheses about the structure and
Pleasecitethisarticleas:J.M.HurtadoJr.etal.,Fieldgeologicobservationandsamplecollectionstrategiesforplanetary
surfaceexploration:Insightsfromthe2010DesertRATSgeologistcrewmembers,ActaAstronaut.(2011),doi:10.1016/
j.actaastro.2011.10.015