NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS) 20000012419: From Engineering Science to Big Science: The NACA and NASA Collier Trophy Research Project Winners

448 Pages·25.2 MB·English

by  NASA Technical Reports Server (NTRS)

NASA SP-4219
FROM ENGINEERING SCIENCE
TO BIG SCIENCE
The NACA and NASA Collier Trophy
Research Project Winners
Edited by Pamela E. Mack
The NASA History Series
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASA Office of Policy and Plans
NASA History Office
Washington, D.C. 1998
Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
lqom Engineering Science 1o Big Science: lhc NA(;A and NASA (:ollicrTr_l)hY Rvscarch
l'r_!jvct\Vilnn'rs/"vdilvd by Pamela E. Mack.
p. cm.--(NASA SI':.1219) (The NASA Itisttm,'s,urivs)
hwhlch's bibliographical rcfi'rcnccs and indexes.
1.(:ollivr Trol_hy.
2, ,M,r<_SlmCe Engineeringi[ hfitcd Slates--t lislmy,
3. Aiq)larms--Utdted States--t)csign and Constv-ttclit>n--llislory.
4. Acronautics--R¢+search--thfitcd States--llistory.
I. Mack, Pam('ht Ettvr. II. Series. Ill. Series: The N,,g";A 1listol 7 svrics.
TI+537.F76 1997 97-27899
62(,t. 1'(1973--(h'2 1 (]lP
For++atbeytheU.S,Government PrintingOffice
Superintendent ofDtxzuments, MailStop:SSOP+Washington, DC 20402-9328
ISBN 0-16-049640-3

Table of Contents
[t_Ir()(htcli()n ........................................................... xi
lhttn('ht E. Mack, l_(lit_)r
(_haplcr I "En_in¢',_'rinS_cience and IIi(l')evel<q)m(',1oltiltN'A(:.\............. ]
l.ow-l)ra_ILn_inc(:<:v,'litLu,,'.lRa.m(I'la,n,,,,,'.
(_hal)ler 2 "l.('v,' R(>d<.'rt, l']])istcmoh+gical l,iais<.l, a.d Thermal ................ 29
I)('-It'ill_, ill +\lilt'S," (;h'ml E. lhlg<_s
(_h',q)l('r ?, "R<.'s('ar(h in Sulwrsonic Flig-hl a.d lilt' lh'caki._ ................... 3!)
of thc Sotmd l_arri_.'v," lohtl t). Alldct+sot+, Jr.
(:hal)tel +,I "Th.+.l'+|+:ur.,,:W:i.rn.itcl'umwl and flw NA( :A...................... 91
l¢'clufical (hlllur('," SI,+.'+.<('Tn. (;t.twliu,,,,+.'n
(:hal)tcr ?_ "Th(' Whitt'oml) Arca Rule: NA(;A Acrodvnamic_+ Rest'at+oh .......... l?,._+
and h+n(>valiol+," [.;lilt' t+'+V._';tll:a(',,'
(_hal)t('r 6 ++The X-13 ll3l)('|+,,o|fic Flight Rt's(+m+ch lh()gram: .................. IL[_)
Politi'us atilt ]_t'rmutati<_tt,, at N,\_+,\, '+\V.D. Kay
(_hal)ter 7 "Th(' ('.ollicv a_+(_ommelnoralion: lh(' lh(!jccl Mt'rcuvx :\strotlaut++ .... 16_>
and lit(' (:oilier Trol_hy," Jamwllc VVarvclt-l:it1(ll('v
(_haptct +S "'Managitlg :\m¢'rica to the Moon: .............................. l!l!+
:\ (_alili<)n Analysis," W. I[('mv I,aml)riu:+t
(:hapt¢'rG) "Th(' llttma. Touch: The l listorv _llthc. ........................ 213
Sk',lah Fh-ogram," Donald (L El<h'r
(Jlaptcv I0 "l.\Nl)SATandtht'Rist'_:+lEarth ResourcesMotfitori.g," . ......... _35
]"am<.'la E. Ma(k
(_hal)tcr l I "V<G:agt'r: Iht' (,ra.d [+<_ttr f>lBi_ Sci(,iv:(,," Andr<:x_ J. I+,utrica ........ _-)I
(_hal)tcr 12 ++The ,Space Nht|lllc's First Flight: STS-I," Henry (L l)cthl<fll •........ _77
(:hal)tt'r 13 "Move Favor('(I than lhc Birds: The Mantwcl ..................... _99
Nlam'u;'c'ri]'_g [!nit in ,%l)aCc,'' ,\l)nt" Milll)r(_ok,.'
vii
(:haptc1r4
"The Adv,mced l'url)oprop Project: Radical ...................... 321
Innovation in a (;onscrvalivc Environment,"
Mark D. Bowles and Virginia P. Dawson
(;haptcr 15 "Return to Flight: Richard H. Truly and the Recovery •............. 345
flom the Challenger Accident,"John M. I,ogsdon
Chapter 16 "The ttubt)le Space fc'h'scOl)e Servicing Mission,". ................ 365
Joseph N. 'lalarewicz
Abottl the Auth<ws ..................................................... 397
Index .............................................................. 401
The NASA 1lislory Series ............................................... 425
viii
Acknowledgments
Whenever historians take on a project of historical investigation Sltch as Ibis, they
stand squarely on the shoulders of earlier investigators and incur a good many intellectual
debts. We mttst acknoMedge the assistance of several individuals who aided in llle pret)a-
ration of this study of aerospace research and devel_ q)men t projects lha! have received lhe
Collier Trophy over the years. First, Lee D. Saegessm; NASA Archivist between 1967 and
1997, was instrunlental in obtaining (Iocunlenls nsed ill tile preparation of the work;
Stephen J. Garber, assistant historian in the NASA History ()ttice, critiqued the text;
M. Ixmise Alstork, edited the work and prepared the index; and Nadine.]. Andreassen
helped with proofieading and compilation. Second, lhe history representatives at tile var-
ious NASA ()."nlers provided much needed assislance: Virginia Butlm, Kevin Coleman,
Deborah (;. Douglas, Michael Q. Hooks, J.D. thmley, Keilh Koehlen William A. Larsen,
Richard Layman, Elaine Liston, Dan Pappas,.]ane Riddle, and Mike Wright. Third, the
stall.,; of the NASA Headquarters IAbrary and lhe Scientific and Technical Inlormation
Program provided assistance in locating materials; and archivists at various presidential
libraries, tile National Archives and Records Administration, tilt: National Air and Space
Mnseum, and in other research centers aided with research eftorts. Fourth, the NASA
tleadqua,ters Printing and Design Office devel<)ped the lav()ut and handled printing tor
this vohune. Specifically, we wish to acknowh'dge the work of Janie E. Penn, Lillian
(;ipsou, Patricia Talberh and Kimberly.]enkins for their edilorial and design work. Ill addi-
lion, Michael (;rnkovic, Stanley Artis, and.|effrey Thompson saw the book through tilt:
publication process. Thanks are do them all.
Several individuals read portions of the manuscripl _)rtalked with me abotll tilt" pro-
.ject, in tile process helping me more than tile)' could ever know. These include Roger E.
Bilstein, Michael I+. Ciancone, Tom D. Crouch, Dwayne A. Day, David H. DeVorkin,
Deborah (;. Douglas, Andrew Dunar, l+inda Neumann Ezell, Charles J. (;ross, R. (:argill
ltall, Richard P. IIallion, Gregg tterken, N.rriss S. lletherington, Robin 1ligham, F,-ancis
T. Hohan, Karl Hutbauer, Sylvia K. Kracn|er,.lohn Howard E. McCurdy, John E. Naugle,
Allan E. Needell, l)avid It. Onkst, Craig B. Waft, Stephen g Waring, and Ray A.
Williamson. All ot these people wottld disagree with some of lhe areas cln>sen tot enlpha-
sis, with many of tim conclusions, and with a few of lhe ttlclnes, but such is hoth lilt" boon
and the bane of historical inquiry.
ix

Introduction
by Pamela E. Mack
For really sci¢`ntists and sci¢`xw¢`and t¢`chtlologg, policy analysts, the canc¢,llation of'
the StLl)¢`l't:ondtlclil+lg Siq)¢`rcollider proj¢`ct ill 1994 s¢`vved as a symbol of a ftmdam¢`lltal
change in put)lie and congr¢,ssional attitud¢`s towaFds F¢`d¢`ral fttnding for large sole`nee` and
tcchtlolog T pr(!jccts. At minimum, govcrtm]cnt [tmd¢`d big scietlc¢` and big lcchnolog 3'
w¢`1"¢` tier lik¢`ly to Conlintl¢` to grow ;`it the pace Ill;it characlcciz¢`d the` (;old War era.
Politicians ill the` United States s¢`UiIl('d ll) h]tx.:(• ItllII('(I ilgliillsl [tmdinlg v¢`nT cxp¢`nsivc
r¢`s¢`arch and d¢`v¢`lopm¢,nt pro j¢`cls withotn cl¢`ar, practical goals, prol)ably b¢,catts¢` th¢`y
b¢`li¢,v¢`d such 1)rojc(ts t¢`nd<:d to take` ell a lift' of"the`it own and re`quire` more and more
|ttn(lillg. hi the` ¢`ycs of most l)olicvmakcts, ftmding for imlovation ill scicn((' atld I¢`chnol-
ogD;coidd no l(mg¢`r ¢`asily l)¢`.juslifi¢`d bv lhv promise` (if gr¢`at lithe`fits flOlll |he, |l¢`vvt¢`ch-
n()logy, l)oth b¢`catlse such promises we`re` vii'wed sk¢`pfically and l)¢`cails¢, poli(ynlak¢`rs
I)¢`li¢`v¢,d thai t)tt(lg¢,lat3: i)|('ssttrcs i)r('(hLd¢`d even w()rthwhil¢` tww ])Fogvams unl¢`ss th¢`y
dire`oily saved IlI()IIC'_; fk)l" th(: <_ov¢`l'lllll('llt.
l+',v('tlt)¢`l_)t_:Ihe trend slarl¢`d to tuFn, historialls (ifs(i¢`llc¢, and I¢,ch|lol()g_' had mad("
iHq)orlant st('l)S in tmd¢`rstanding the` d¢`v¢`lol)m¢`nt of big sci¢`nc¢` and big t¢`chnoh)gQ; in a
tluIllt)¢`l"o| dill(.w¢`n! inslittltiona] .+,;¢`ltings,illl(t lilt' ('h;`|llgiIl_ CII1T¢,Ilt C]ilII_t.I¢`Cilll give` IICW
I)¢`rSl)cctiv¢`. Sch<)larlv inltev¢`st in "l)ig scielw¢," ares(' out (if the` p¢`vce])tion (if sci¢`ntisls in tlt('
I¢.)50s al_d l(.)(-_0slhat the exp¢`ri(mc(_ of doing sole`two had chang¢`d in a ftmdam¢`ntal way (at
[¢`astin some` th'lds) lx,<:ausc of the,incr¢,asing preval¢`n('¢` (if¢`xp¢`nsiv¢` itlstruments and Ireg('
¢`xtctnally ftmde(l r¢`s¢`;uch pr()j¢`cts. Engin¢`¢`rs did not ('xp¢`ri¢`nc¢` a parall¢`l shift <ifsimilar
intensity; lh¢`y alr¢`ad}' had cxperi¢`n(¢` with latg¢` g()v(:vt/mt'nl-l+,m(l¢`d pr(!j¢`cls (such asdams).
But, at l¢`;`L'+itn some, []¢,lds, ¢`nginccrs wetking oil latgc-scah', govcrnmctlt-Itmd¢`d re`search
and d¢`v¢`loptncnt did ¢`xp¢`rience ashift It);t partictdav iww kind ()fl)ig t¢,(hnoh)g 7. For ¢`xlllll-
pl¢`, at tilt, National A¢`rt)nautics and Sl)aCc Administratitm this "l)ig l¢`chn()log3," inv()Iv¢,d
large pvoj¢,cts with a high p()liti('al i)r()lil¢`, (lttil¢` difi+¢`re)lt flom tit(' sysl¢`mati( t-¢`s¢,ar(h into
t+undam¢`ntal lie`sign p;`il'a|ll¢`l('ls that (']lar+,lctcrizcd the "'('tlgin¢,ccing sole`lice" al)pt'oach
typical of the` Nali(mal Advis()rv (]()mmitt¢`(' [or A¢`|-oHatni(-s lie`fore` the way.'
M()st hist()Fians sill(lying big s(i('n(¢` and t(*(h))()l()g T have` focttsc(l (glh¢`|- ()u]basic
scicHc¢` (parti(tflarly high-¢`tl(:t-g_' i)hysits) or on1 military r¢`s(.'avch alld d¢`v¢,lopmctlt."
()t)vh)usly, the, National A¢`l/)ni+.tlliCs itll(l Space A(lmilfistra/iotl (NASA) axld ils pr¢`d¢,c¢`s-
sot orgatfizati()tL the National Advis()ry (',omuliill(!¢` f()z" A¢`r()n_atttics (NACA), pr()vid¢`
a)lolh¢`r imp()vta)n ¢`xampl¢`. The` l¢`:td(,rs ()f NASA during the Apollo pt()gvatn t¢`,tlizt'd
t]llll lh(!v v¢('l'(' pit)nt,¢`lS ill ]ill',_¢` pl()_lilln lllltllilg(!lli(!lll ;.is well as in Sl)a('¢` tt'_lv¢`l, but l]ltW('
has I)¢`¢`n little` inH(!gnati()l_ of the larger l)ac:kgrt)und t() that st(ire ()r s.vst('tnali(: alt¢`tlli()n
t() the` r()l¢` of large pv(_j¢`(t ma])ag¢`m¢`n! in the issut's NASA has fac¢`d since` Apollo.
The` NACA and NASA provide` an ()l)p()rtttnilv t() study (l')ang¢`s in tlt(' ])ittl('x'nl <)1
major t¢`search and d¢,v¢,h)pm¢`t_l pr(!j¢`cls ov¢`r asignificant span oftime i)) a govct+nm¢`nt
context qtuit¢, different from the` l)('partm¢`nt of l)¢,tk'ns¢,. The` chapt¢,rs of this book dis-
cuss as¢`ri¢'s of case` stt,di¢,s of tt<ltat)h, I('chnoh)gical pr(!j(,('ts carri¢`d om at l(';`l,'.+!ill part by
the NA(_A and NASA. Th(' case sttt<ti¢`s (:host't) at-("lhos¢` proj¢`(ls that w()n the` National
I. I have distiulguishcd I)ctwct'n "big n(i('twe" and "bi,_ technolog,',,," but NASA tls('s the term "hig sol-
('n(('" t_)it_(ltt(h' b()th.
_. Foe )('f,.'u't'llt t's to the big stien( elit('n:|tUlt', st't' lit.low; Ion :idis( tnssi(m ()I how th(" sltl('l', of tang(' I('(h
)_()h)u._, lhs imo b)o:td('v hisloriographital t)(*Hds i)) hisl._,..f Ic(hnologv, s('(' .]_)hn M. Sta_ndcnnnaicr, "Rt*(t')_t
Ttct)ds iHthe llistt,r', el Tt'( hn_(.h)g_,. ''A>m'_i_a>_ IIi_t.>q_al l¢:vi:_t,t)3 (JUl)t" I!)9(I): 71,")-26.
xi
Acrommtic
A.ssociation's (N_L,_.) (:oilier Trophy liar "llw greatest actxicvcmcnl in aviation
in America, the vahw of which has bccn Ihoroughly d(,monslrmed by use during the
ire'ceding ?,'car." l+ooking hack on the whole series of projects we can cxmninc both what
NIIiiI'_,y,i+y,1,_.,i.l-is.('/'ll ;IS illl])ort;tnl at various titheS, and how lhe goals and ,C)l-_illliZ;_llion o[
tilt+st' nolablc Im!ieCtN changed over lime.;
The Collier Trophy provides a way of selecting a series of case studies ot projects
that can be compared over a t<tirl?,,long span of lime+ This volunw covers i:,roieclS Ihai
rectqv,ud their awards tiom 1929 to 1994. From lh,L'poinl of view ofsch<)lars who haw._ stud-
led g,t>v,urntncnt SUpl)ort li)r science an¢l techn<)h)g_.', this span of years covers three impof
tant periods. "l'h0 period after World War I saw limited experimentation with the role of
the g,overltlncnl ill supporting research most importantly in the tmm of engineering
science. The period during and after '_,k)rld War lI saw an explosion in the govt+rnmcnt
role in science and technohig):', with anoth¢'r burst alier Sputnik. Finally, a reevaluation of
stir>lice alid technolo_' as public goods started from one side of lhe political Sl+ectrunl in
the law 19(il)s and took on new motncntunt lr<>m the other side in lhe 1980s. Fi-oln Ilw
point olview of the rise of big science and tcchn<dog T, the prqjects in this book lake ns
throttgh a t)criod when t:,udgcls, the ntnnt+er of l_eoplt •and organizations involv,..d, and
Imrcaucracy dramatically increased t1_1+most NACA and NASA projects. Not all the later
tm+jecls covered in Ibis book were large by Ihe slandards of their own lime, bul cvcn lhc
smallcl ones, sttch as the Manned Maneuvering Unit (chaplt+r 13) or ltw Fucl-etlicicnl
+Iiutiol)t+Ol ) (chapter 14), look ti:>rln in an cnvironnl¢'nt of political and I)urcaucratic prcs-
stn+esthat had developed in NASA because of its r<dc asa big-technol,_+g,_, agency.
Thc st.tics c>lcase studies included he,t" Ire'sent some <ff lhc most successthl
i)r_._iects in thc hisl<lt T of the NA(:A and NASA. Each illuminates the ch'veh>lmlenl and lim-
itations of big tt,chnoh)gy at these agenci,us its an example of the larger l:,henometmn of
Ilw dcv,t'lolmWnl ,_ffengineering science and big science. The work of'Waher Vincent; and
James Ilanserl has made aeronatttical engineering in general and the NACA in particttlm'
lhc slandard example of engineering sci,_,nce.' While historians have used high-energ T
physics as the standard example ot+big science, NASA has some claim to the role of stan-
dard examplc [or big technology (using palterns thai to a considerable extent w_'rc sl'l by
the NA(L,\). ,,\[),c)lltK_ra NASA Administrat,m Janles _.kq)b certainly sought t,c+makc that
,.laim ]:,ywriting a I:,ook on .Space A,¢eMalTa_eme_H: The 1.argv-.Scale AlqmJach, and the iCh'a had
('lll)tlg|l lmblic I/'SOIlilllCt" IO ttll'II the lIhl+aSl'--+'|l'wt +/'_.lll SOlid a 11114.11 Ill thl" IllOOll wh%' (-;Ill'|
wt'... ?"--into a clMId.+ AI)<_II<+did not provide lhc model |ilr lt'te thture that _,_,t+l+hhad
hot)ed. Iml NASA toni;lined lo graplJle in a vmT Imhlic way with the l>rohlcms of conduct-
ing large-scale tcchnoh)gT-deveh_lmlcnt Ira!jeers tllal rcquircd SUl+port fronl diverse inleresl
3. l hcsc [>mi<'cts d¢_ tml iClm+Sent simply a c<_lh'ction ol sncccss stori¢"+. Whih" some wt'tu m+!j_t tri-
unlphs lilt Ihc N..%-(:+'\ or NASA others did lll+i Ike lip to their initial promise+ represt'nlcd tCSl)_lilsl's to nlaiot
t;liliil_'_, or earned tl/l'il aWalds iiiiirl" till [liilllil al)l:lcal than li)r tel llii<llt_l_i(al _t_hieveni('lii. Oilier l)i_iccl_, siich
;is lht' Viking Mars landing, niiThi liavc dt'nci _t'lt Ihc (:¢_llici I} ¢_llli:+ iliort' lhan _;o1111' inchilh'll hcl t'--Ilil" (:¢_lliei
"l'i<_ph', im_idc_ all illltqt'sting salnlll+<', iilll ii Iisl ot Iht' NA(:A and lh0 N,.\N,_t's liiOM su( _.csstlil pr¢!jccis, ltie lii<lM
Ihltl i_iti lit' nahl ot all lhcsl' t)i-<!icct+_ is Ihai IIw} <_ailied the ill'aisc ot Iht' acto_i)alc ioinntuilil}'; wiihin Iht'
i qlilll'xl ll| thl" lillll" and t|l_il (OlnlllUllily Iht'}' ret)reSellt _;ll('(t!_,_l+"4.
i, St't' (hilpl('l-_, 1, :_+,;tlld 4+tll(1%_l'allt'l (',.Vill(l'llti. ll'hal/+.'.Kineer+ KmJn, am] #tow 'lh O' FmJw 1l: A.al;'l, rd
._l+uliP, in the Hi.',h_l) o[ .:li,+'lTslialili+al Ili,',hJ.+_ '(BahilltlllC, MI): Jolul.s Hopkins [!nk¢'lsil)I>lC_,s. 11t911).
-I, J_ilnl':-, E. l_,i+l:_t), 5,1mceAt.,.eM_l_xgeme.t: I'hel,a_:l.fe ,STale .-llJtm_adl (Ne'e,'_i_v k, NY: M¢(;raw tlill. 19ti9).
Y;cc also> l,eonard b;a',lcs and Margaret Chundh,._; ,'!,l,,i;._,.,_i,,_/g I.au4_ ,",)'_/e,','l_: O'_a_lt:alioP+_ I_ tla'/"l,_/u:i' (Nt"0, Y<nk.
NY:tlarpcr and Row,1971).TIw "If thcycansendamanm lheM_oll" dichd eve.rituallyt.,.._lvcdinto ai,,k_+:m
l>hiladelphiam thelaw 1970_abusinesscall,.'dIhml4 K<mgI::Nsmm"Ihitorsadvertisedwilh theline: "1tthe.",_an
st'nil a ili;ili I(i ihc Mooi+l why (;lil't Ihey lllllkt" ;tStlil ill til lill+P "
xii