Nanotechnology and photovoltaic devices : light energy harvesting with group IV nanostructures

441 Pages·2015·35.292 MB·English

by  Mirabella, Salvo, Valenta, Jan

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ISBN 978-981-4463-63-8
ISBN 9VI7S48B1-9N18 91VV-74448141-169138-1V6-44314-1863V-V644311-118
ISBN 978-981-4463-63-8
Nanotechnology and
Photovoltaic Devices

Pan Stanford Series on Renewable Energy — Volume 2
Nanotechnology and
Photovoltaic Devices
Light Energy Harvesting with
Group IV Nanostructures
editors
Preben Maegaard
Anna Krenz edited by
Wolfgang Palz
Jan Valenta and Salvo Mirabella
The Rise of Modern Wind Energy
Wind Power
for the World
CRC Press
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March12,2015 16:6 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Valenta–prelims
Contents
Preface xiii
1 IntroductiontoPhotovoltaicsandPotentialApplicationsof
GroupIVNanostructures 1
JanValentaandSalvoMirabella
1.1 EnergyfromtheSun 2
1.2 TheBasicPrinciplesofPhotovoltaicSolarCells 5
1.2.1 EnergyBalance 5
1.2.2 EnergyConversion:EfficiencyandLimits 7
1.3 AdvancedConceptsforPhotovoltaics 10
1.3.1 TheMultijunctionApproach 13
1.3.2 Up-andDown-Conversion 13
1.3.2.1 Wavelengthconversion 13
1.3.2.2 Intermediate-bandSCs 15
1.3.2.3 Carriermultiplication 15
1.3.3 Hot-CarrierExtraction 16
1.4 GroupIVNanostructures 16
1.4.1 ProspectsofNanomaterialsinPhotovoltaics 18
1.4.2 LightManagementinSolarCells 19
1.5 Conclusions 21
2 TheDielectricFunctionandSpectrophotometry:FromBulk
toNanostructures 27
CaterinaSummonte
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 TheDielectricFunction:WhydoweNeedan
Approximation? 29
2.2.1 ElectromagneticMixingFormulas 29
2.3 TheDielectricFunctionattheNanoscale 31
March12,2015 16:6 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Valenta–prelims
vi Contents
2.3.1 SiliconNanoparticles 32
2.3.2 GermaniumNanoparticles 34
2.3.3 Nanowires 35
2.3.4 Graphene 36
2.4 MeasurementsandElaboration 36
2.4.1 VolumeFractionsofCompositeMaterials 36
2.4.2 R&TSpectroscopyExperimentalSetup 38
2.4.3 ElaborationofR&TSpectra 39
2.4.3.1 Determinationofabsorption 39
2.4.3.2 Determinationoftheopticalgap 41
2.4.3.3 QualitativeevaluationofR&Tspectra 43
2.4.3.4 Singlelayeronatransparentsubstrate 45
2.4.3.5 SpectralformsfortheDF 47
2.4.4 TheGeneralizedTransferMatrixApproach 47
2.5 R&TSpectroscopyAppliedtoNanoparticles 48
2.5.1 Single-LayerApproach 48
2.5.1.1 Managementoftheunknown
parameters 48
2.5.1.2 Determinationofthedielectric
functionofnc-Si 49
2.5.1.3 VolumefractionsandSicrystallized
fractions 49
2.5.1.4 Detectionofalow-densitysurface
layer 50
2.5.1.5 Phaseseparationinsilicon-richoxides 51
2.5.2 SingleLayersandMultilayers 52
2.6 Conclusions 53
3 AbinitioCalculationsoftheElectronicandOptical
PropertiesofSiliconQuantumDotsEmbeddedinDifferent
Matrices 65
RobertoGuerraandStefanoOssicini
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Structures 68
3.2.1 EmbeddedSiliconQuantumDots 69
3.2.2 FreestandingQuantumDots 71
3.3 Results 72
March12,2015 16:6 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Valenta–prelims
Contents vii
3.3.1 AmorphizationEffects 73
3.3.2 SizeandPassivation 75
3.3.3 EmbeddingInsulatingMaterials 77
3.3.4 OpticalAbsorption 77
3.3.5 ApplicabilityofEffectiveMedium
Approximation 78
3.3.6 Strain 81
3.3.7 Local-FieldEffects 83
3.3.8 EnsemblesofQuantumDots 86
3.3.9 BeyondDFT 87
3.4 Conclusions 90
4 SiliconNanoclustersEmbeddedinDielectricMatrices:
Nucleation,Growth,Crystallization,andDefects 99
DanielHiller
4.1 Introduction 99
4.2 SiliconQuantumDotFormation 102
4.2.1 PreparationMethods 102
4.2.2 PhaseSeparationforMatrix-EmbeddedSi
QDs 104
4.3 SiliconQuantumDotCrystallization 108
4.4 SiliconNanocrystalSizeControlandShape 111
4.4.1 TheSuperlatticeApproach 113
4.5 SiliconNanocrystals:TheRoleofPointDefects 116
4.5.1 IdentificationandQuantificationofDefects 116
4.5.2 ClassificationofPointDefects 117
4.5.2.1 DefectsintheSi/SiO system 118
2
4.5.2.2 DefectsintheSi/Si N system 120
3 4
4.5.2.3 DefectsintheSi/SiCsystem 121
4.5.3 InfluenceofInterfaceDefectsonPL 122
4.5.3.1 InteractionofdefectswithPLin
SiO -embeddedSiNCs 122
2
4.5.3.2 InteractionofdefectswithPLin
Si N -embeddedSiNCs 128
3 4
4.5.4 InfluenceofInterfaceDefectsonElectrical
Transport 129
4.6 Conclusions 130
March12,2015 16:6 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Valenta–prelims
viii Contents
5 Excited-StateRelaxationinGroupIVNanocrystals
InvestigatedUsingOpticalMethods 145
FrantiˇsekTroja´nek,PetrMaly´,andIvanPelant
5.1 Introduction 145
5.2 ExperimentalMethods 147
5.2.1 PumpandProbeTechnique 147
5.2.2 Up-ConversionTechnique 150
5.2.3 TransientGratingTechnique 152
5.2.4 Time-ResolvedTerahertzSpectroscopy 153
5.3 FemtosecondPhenomena 154
5.4 PicosecondandNanosecondPhenomena 165
6 CarrierMultiplicationinIsolatedandInteractingSilicon
Nanocrystals 177
IvanMarri,MarcoGovoni,andS.Ossicini
6.1 Introduction 177
6.2 CarrierMultiplicationandAugerRecombinationin
Low-DimensionalNanosystems 181
6.3 Theory 183
6.4 One-SiteCM:AbsoluteandRelativeEnergyScale 186
6.5 Two-SiteCM:Wavefunction-SharingRegime 191
6.6 Conclusions 199
7 TheIntroductionofMajorityCarriersintoGroupIV
Nanocrystals 203
DirkKo¨nig
7.1 Introduction 203
7.2 TheoryofConventionalNanocrystalDoping 205
7.2.1 Thermodynamics:Stablevs.ActiveDopant
Configurations 206
7.2.2 ElectronicProperties:QuantumStructurevs.
PointDefect 214
7.2.3 PhosphorousasanExample:HybridDensity
FunctionalTheoryCalculations 218
7.3 SurveyonExperimentalResultsofConventionalSi
NanovolumeDoping 226
7.3.1 SiNanovolumesinNext-Generation
Ultra-Large-ScaleIntegration 226
March12,2015 16:6 PSPBook-9inx6in 00-Valenta–prelims
Contents ix
7.3.2 Free-StandingNanocrystals 227
7.3.3 EmbeddedNanocrystalsFormedby
SegregationAnneal 231
7.4 AlternativestoConventionalDoping 240
7.4.1 ModulationDoping 240
7.4.2 ExploitingInterfaceEnergetics:Nanoscopic
FieldEffect 244
7.5 ConclusionandOutlook 244
8 ElectricalTransportinSi-BasedNanostructured
Superlattices 255
BlasGarrido,SergiHerna´ndez,YonderBerence´n,
JulianLo´pez-Vidrier,JoanManelRam´ırez,OriolBla´zquez,
andBernatMundet
8.1 IntroductionandScope 255
8.2 SuperlatticesandMinibands 256
8.3 AmorphousandNanocrystalSuperlattices 262
8.4 TransportinNanocrystalSuperlattices 267
8.4.1 SemiclassicalMinibandandBandTransport 269
8.4.2 TransportwithField-AssistedCarrier
ExchangebetweenLocalizedandExtended
States 272
8.4.3 ConductionthroughLocalizedStates(Hopping
byTunneling) 274
8.4.4 InjectionandSpaceCharge–LimitedCurrents 278
8.4.5 HorizontalTransport 280
8.5 VerticalTransportinSRO/SiO Superlattices 283
2
8.6 TransportinSRON/SiO andSRC/SiCSuperlattices 289
2
8.6.1 HorizontalTransportinSRC/SiCSuperlattices 289
8.6.2 VerticalTransportinSRON/SiO Superlattices 293
2
8.7 Conclusions 299
AppendixA BandStructureofNanocrystal
Superlattices 300
AppendixB SemiclassicalConductioninthe
ExtendedStatesofaSuperlattice 306
AppendixC GeneralizedTrap-AssistedTunneling
Model 310