Nanotechnology

695 Pages·1999·24.109 MB·English

by  G. Timp (auth.), Gregory Timp (eds.)

Nanotechnology
GREGORY TIMP
EDITOR
Nanotechnology
i
Springer
Gregory Timp
BeII Laboratories
Lucent Technologies
Murray HiII, NI 07974-0636
USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nanotechnology I [edited by] Gregory L. Timp.
p. cm.
Inc1udes bibliographica1 references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4612-6805-5 ISBN 978-1-4612-0531-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4612-0531-9
1. Nanotechnology. 1. Timp, Gregory L.
TI74.7.N373 1998
620'.S--ilc21 98-4681
Printed on acid-free paper.
© 1999 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Origina11y published by Springer-Verlag New York in 1999
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover lst edition 1999
All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written
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Production managed by Steven Pisano; manufacturing supervised by Jeffrey Taub.
Photocomposed pages prepared from the author's troff files.
987654
ISBN 978-1-4612-6805-5
Contents
Contributors ..................................................................................................... vii
1 Nanotechnology ................................................................................................ 1
G. Timp
2 Nano-electronics for Advanced Computation and Communication ................. 7
G. Timp, R.E. Howard, and P.M. Mankiewich
3 Nanostructures in Motion: Micro-Instruments for Moving Nanometer-Scale
Objects ............................................................................................................. 89
N. C. MacDonald
4 Limits of Conventional Lithography ............................................................. 161
D.M. Tennant
5 Fabrication of Atomically Controlled Nanostructures and Their Device
Application .................................................................................................... 207
H. Sakaki
6 Chemical Approaches to Semiconductor Nanocrystals and Nanocrystal
Materials ........................................................................................................ 257
Louis Brus
7 Nanotechnology in Carbon Materials ........................................................... 285
M.S. Dresselhaus, G. Dresselhaus, and R. Saito
8 Self-Assembly and Self-Assembled Monolayers in Micro-and
Nanofabrication ............................................................................................. 331
James L. Wilbur and George M. Whitesides
9 Biocatalytic Synthesis of Polymers of Precisely Defined Structures ............ 371
Timothy J. Deming, Vincent P. Conticello, and David A. Tirrell
10 Atom Optics: Using Light to Position Atoms ............................................... 403
Jabez J. McClelland and Mara Prentiss
11 From the Bottom Up: Building Things with Atoms ..................................... 425
Don Eigler
12 Physical Properties of Nanometer-Scale Magnets ........................................ 437
David D. Awschalom and Stephan von Molnar
vi Contents
13 Single Electron Transport Through a Quatum Dot ....................................... 471
Leo P. Kouwenhoven and Paul L. McEuen
14 Chaos in Ballistic Nanostructures
Part I: Theory ................................................................................................ 537
Harold U. Baranger
Part II: Experiment ........................................................................................ 589
R.M. Westervelt
15 Semiconducting and Superconducting Physics and Devices in the InAsIAISb
Materials System ........................................................................................... 629
Herbert Kraemer and Evelyn Hu
Index .............................................................................................................. 689
Contributors
David A. Awschalom, Department of Physics, University of California, Santa
Barbara, CA 93106 USA
Harold U. Baranger, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, NJ
07974 USA
Louis Bros, Chemistry Department, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027
USA
Vincent P. Conticello, Department of Chemistry, Emory University, Atlanta, GA
30322 USA
Timothy J. Deming, Department of Materials, University of California, Santa
Barbara, CA 93106 USA
G. Dresselhaus, Francis Bitter National Magnet Laboratory, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
M.S. Dresselhaus, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science
and Department of Physics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
Don Eigler, ffiM Research Division, Almaden Research Center, San Jose, CA
95120 USA
R.E. Howard, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, NJ 07974
USA
Evelyn Hu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 USA
Leo P. Kouwenhoven, Department of Applied Physics, Delft University of
Technology, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands
Herbert Kroemer, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 USA
N.C. MacDonald, Department of Electrical Engineering, Cornell University,
Ithaca, NY 14853 USA
viii Contributors
P.M. Mankiewich, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, NJ
07974 USA
Jabez J. McClelland, Electron Physics Group, National Institute of Standards
and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899 USA
Paul L. McEuen, Department of Physics, University of California and Materials
Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
Stephan von Molnar, Department of Physics, Materials Research and
Technology Center, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32308 USA
Mara Prentiss, Physics Department, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138
USA
R. Saito, Department of Electronics Engineering, University of Electro
communications, Chofugaoka, Chofu, 182 Tokyo, Japan
H. Sakaki, University of Tokyo (RCAST), 4-6-1 Komaba, Megoru-ku, Tokyo,
Japan
D.M. Tennant, Bell Laboratories, Holmdel, NJ 07733 USA
G. Timp, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, NJ 07974 USA
David A. Tirrell, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of
Massachusetts at Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003 USA
R.M. Westervelt, Division of Applied Sciences and Department of Physics,
Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02139 USA
George M. Whitesides, Department of Chemistry, Harvard University,
Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
James L. Wilbur, Department of Chemistry, Harvard University, Cambridge,
MA02138 USA
Chapter 1
Nanotechnology
G. Timp
Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies,
Murray Hill, N.J. 07974 USA
I. INTRODUCTION
In A.D. 1295, after a 24 year sojourn in the court of Kublai Khan, Marco Polo,
his father, Nicolo, and his uncle, Maffeo, returned to Venice. They were no
longer wearing the fine raiments of trusted advisors to the Khan of khans, how
ever. Instead, they looked like vagrants. Their garments, of a Tartar cut, were
tom and tattered by the rigors of the trip, and they could hardly speak their native
tongue for lack of practice. Upon arriving home, they had to force their way into
their family quarters. Their relatives hadn't recognized them - this trio had been
given up for dead long ago.
Marco, Nicolo and Maffeo were both merchants and explorers. During their
travels throughout Asia, they made careful observations and mapped the circui
tous overland and sea routes from Russia to India, from Suez to Japan. But
Marco had an eye for nature, too, and so the flora and fauna of the regions they
transited were also documented. They did these things because they were curious
and because they perceived an economic advantage to it. Their efforts on behalf
of the Khan over the years had earned them the chop, a golden tablet with the
Great Khan's royal seal, entitling them to safe passage throughout the Mongol
empire and its tributaries. They used it to return home with incredible wealth -
rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and diamonds sewn into their tattered clothing - and
detailed knowledge of the East inculcated in their brains.
Eventually, their kinsmen came to be convinced that these suspicious looking
characters were who they claimed to be, and they began to interrogate Marco
about the East, especially after he revealed the jewels sewn into their garments.
However, it seems that the jewels and silks could not buy credibility outright.
Marco's fantastic tales of the marvels witnessed at Kublai's court - the Great
Wall, coal, paper money, porcelain, movable type, water clocks, and the various
great hunts - were not widely accepted by his contemporaries and were often
dismissed as gross exaggerations or unmitigated lies.
It is natural to stay within sight of the shore, to tread a familiar path, and to
drink from your own well. However, extraordinary people like Marco Polo can
be provoked by curiosity and by the promise of wealth (either monetary or intel
lectual) to venture beyond the horizon, and they can be persuaded by vanity to
G. Timp (ed.), Nanotechnology
© Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. 1999
2 G. Timp
come back and tell about what they have seen. Marco Polo made the world larger
and secured the future of Western civilization by doing this. His travel log, The
Book of Ser Marco Polo Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East,
inspired Christopher Columbus to seek a westward route from Spain to the East,
and Prince Rupert to found the Hudson Bay Company. And though his tales of
the wonders of Asia seemed incredible to his contemporaries, we now know them
to be true.
This book, Nanotechnology, is composed of fifteen chapters written by
explorers of a new frontier; a frontier that exists on the head of pin, as incredible
as that may seem. These explorers are from a variety of different disciplines:
atomic physics, electrical engineering, chemistry, materials science, and numeri
cal physics to name just a few. Like Marco Polo, they were motivated by curios
ity, and the promise of intellectual and monetary rewards, to use science and their
powers of observation to map the te"a icognita of a microscopic world that
extends from the 100 micrometer diameter of a human hair to a fraction of a
nanometer, the size of a single atom. But this world is even more exotic than
Marco Polo's Asia seemed to be, since the classical laws of physics that govern
the mechanics of our common experience are suspended on this frontier.
As Rich Howard, Paul Mankiewich and I elucidate in Chapter 2, the explora
tion of this frontier was spawned by the integrated circuit (IC) revolution and the
requirements of miniaturization that make ICs possible. The market for ICs has
already generated a 150 billion dollars in sales in 1996 and it's growing. It is
estimated that sales will reach 300 billion dollars by the year 2000. ICs now per
vade our lives and have enabled space flight, the information age, and toasters
that get it right every time. Moreover, the same techniques used to integrate and
manufacture electronics have provided us with the opportunity to fabricate
micro-machines and micro-robots with moving parts of the type Noel MacDonald
describes in Chapter 3. The requirements of miniaturization, micro-machining
and integration are becoming more stringent as the minimum feature size (MFS)
shrinks, however, as Don Tennant reminds us in Chapter 4. For example, a Pen
tium® processor is comprised of about 4 million electronic switches, and each
switch is only a few thousand atoms long. Devices this small are shorter than the
wavelength of visible light, and consequently the conventional means for produc
ing them, which employs optical lithography as a key element, cannot be inexpen
sively extended to much smaller scales. Following the evolutionary development
of technology, there have been numerous forecasts of a small wall near an MFS of
lOOnm, beyond which conventional IC technology will stall because of the cost of
fabrication[1,2]. Yet, there is still no consensus on a revolutionary, inexpensive
route for producing smaller features to breach this wall.
An economical route to feature sizes 100 nm and smaller has been a primary
motivation for research on the nanometer frontier. The next seven chapters of this
book form a less than comprehensive list of some revolutionary routes to fabrica
tion of features smaller than 100 nm. A fundamental dichotomy exists between
1. Nanotechnology 3
the methodology for manufacturing proposed in these seven chapters, where
nanometer-scale features are built up from their elemental constituents reminis
cent of atomic or molecular architecture, and that represented in chapters 1, 2, and
3, where successive applications of planar lithography and etching are used to
carve small features into a single crystal. For example, Hiro Sakaki annotates the
remarkable progress toward the fabrication of atomically controlled structures
using epitaxy in Chapter 5. The emergence of molecular beam epitaxy (MBE)
and organo-metallic vapor phase epitaxy has allowed depositions of arbitrary
thicknesses and composition with an accuracy of one atomic layer along the
direction of growth, enabling the development of high performance devices such
as quantum-well lasers, high-electron mobility transistors and resonant tunneling
diodes. Although not yet as useful as MBE synthesis, Louis Brus demonstrates in
Chapter 6 the extraordinary potential for chemical synthesis or the spontaneous
self-assembly of molecular clusters from simple reagents in solution for the pro
duction of three dimensional nanostructures or quantum dots of arbitrary diame
ter.
Two examples of molecular self assembly, which use the unusual chemistry
of carbon, are reviewed by Millie Dresselhaus, Gene Dresselhaus and R. Saito in
Chapter 7, and by George Whitesides and Jim Wilbur in Chapter 8. In particu
lar, the mysteries of the carbon-based fullerene molecule, C 6(J, which is only
O.7nm in diameter and represents one of the most reproducible nanostructures
currently available, are unraveled by Dresselhaus and co-authors, while White
sides and Wilbur delineate how the characteristics of self-assembly make it espe
cially promising as a technique for patterning nanostructures. Since the basic
principles of self-assembly also underpin biology, e.g. protein folding and aggre
gation, the pairing of base pairs in DNA, etc., it seems only natural that David
Tirrell and his co-authors have pursued the production of artificial protein
sequences, synthesized with absolute unifonnity of structure, by utilizing recom
binant DNA technology and Escherichia coli to express the target proteins. As
Tirrell describes in Chapter 9, a DNA template for the synthesis of a polypeptide
chain, coupled with an intrinsic proofreading or self-correcting capacity, has
enabled the production of macroscopic structures with nearly atomic precision.
Molecular self-assembly works so well, and reproducibly defines nanometer
scale structures spontaneously at room temperature because the fabrication occurs
at a thermodynamic minima, which rejects defects according to the size of
fluctuations about the minima. Unfortunately, the utter absence of manual control
over the means of fabrication is construed as a pitfall for conventional applica
tions. This limitation has prompted two atomic physicists, Jabez McClelland and
Mara Prentiss, to exploit atom optics to manipulate, deflect, and focus atoms
using forces that develop from spatial undulations in a light field. As they observe
in Chapter 10, the principle advantages derived from manipulating atoms this
way come from massive parallelism (which preserves one of the most attractive
features of self-assembly) and the precise registration associated with the use of a