Nanostructured Materials

215 Pages·2020·7.533 MB·English

by  T. Daniel Thangadurai, N. Manjubaashini, Sabu Thomas, Hanna J. Maria

Engineering Materials
T. Daniel Thangadurai
N. Manjubaashini
Sabu Thomas
Hanna J. Maria
Nanostructured
Materials
Engineering Materials
This series provides topical information on innovative, structural and functional
materials and composites with applications in optical, electrical, mechanical, civil,
aeronautical, medical, bio- and nano-engineering. The individual volumes are
complete, comprehensive monographs covering the structure, properties, manufac-
turing process and applications of these materials. This multidisciplinary series is
devotedtoprofessionals,studentsandallthoseinterestedinthelatestdevelopments
in the Materials Science field.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/4288
T. Daniel Thangadurai N. Manjubaashini
(cid:129) (cid:129)
Sabu Thomas Hanna J. Maria
(cid:129)
Nanostructured Materials
123
T. DanielThangadurai N.Manjubaashini
Department ofNanoscience Department ofNanoscience
andTechnology andTechnology
Sri RamakrishnaEngineering College Sri RamakrishnaEngineering College
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,India Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu,India
SabuThomas Hanna J.Maria
IIUCNN IIUCNN
Mahatma Gandhi University Mahatma Gandhi University
Kottayam, Kerala, India Kottayam, Kerala, India
ISSN 1612-1317 ISSN 1868-1212 (electronic)
Engineering Materials
ISBN978-3-030-26144-3 ISBN978-3-030-26145-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-26145-0
©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2020
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Contents
1 Nanotechnology and Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Fundamentals of Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Dimensions of Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 2D Confinement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 1D Confinement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.3 Zero Dimensional Confinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Features of Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.1 Activation of Particle Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.2 Particle Size. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Particle Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.4 Two-Dimensional Particle Projection Image. . . . . . . 5
1.3.5 Three-Dimensional Particle Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Significances of Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Basic Concept of Nanotechnology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2 Nanomaterials, Properties and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Brief Notes on Nanomaterials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Nanomaterial Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Structural Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.2 Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.3 Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.4 Mechanical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.5 Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2.6 Optical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2.7 Electronic Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2.8 Physiochemical Properties of Nanomaterials. . . . . . . 18
2.2.9 Specific Surface Area and Pore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3 Nanomaterial Synthesis Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.1 Top-Down Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.2 Bottom-Up Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
v
vi Contents
2.4 Applications of Nanomaterials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.1 Environmental Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.2 Health Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.3 Energy Sector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Fundamentals of Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1 Nanostructures Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Nanostructured Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2.1 1D Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.2 2D Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2.3 3D Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3 Features of Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Theoretical Substantiation of the Approaches Proposed. . . . . . 34
3.5 Types of Nanostructured Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5.1 Nanostructures in Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.2 Nanostructures in Insects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.5.3 Nanostructures in the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5.4 Ceramic Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5.5 Polymer Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5.6 Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5.7 Thin Films. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.5.8 Nanostructure Computation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4 Physics and Chemistry of Nanostructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1 Nanostructured Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5 Quantum Effects, CNTs, Fullerenes and Dendritic Structures . . . . 55
5.1 Fullerenes Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.2 Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
5.3 Laser-Assisted Metal-Catalyzed Nanowire Growth . . . . . . . . . 59
5.4 Hierarchal Complexity in 1-D Nanostructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.5 Mechanical and Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.6 Electronic Properties of Nanowires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.7 Optical Properties of Nanowires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6 Semiconductors, Organic and Hybrid Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1 Semiconductor Nanostructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1.1 Quasi-One-Dimensional Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6.1.2 Double Quantum Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.1.3 The Size of Semiconductor Nanostructures . . . . . . . 70
6.1.4 Electrostatics of a GaAs/AlGaAs Heterostructure . . . 71
6.1.5 Applications of Semiconductor Nanostructures. . . . . 71
Contents vii
6.2 Organic Nanostructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.1 Structures and Applications of Organic
Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2.2 Miscellaneous Application of Organic
Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.3 Hybrid Nanostructures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.3.1 Physical Deposition to Synthesize the Hybrid
Nanostructures of Metal NPs/2D Materials. . . . . . . . 74
6.3.2 Chemical Reduction to Synthesize the Hybrid
Nanostructures of Metal NPs/2D Materials. . . . . . . . 75
6.3.3 Applications of Hybrid Nanostructures. . . . . . . . . . . 75
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
7 Properties of Nanostructured Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.1 Unique Properties of Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.2 Physical Properties of Nanowires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.2.1 Thermal Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.2.2 Optical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.2.3 Electronic Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.2.4 Mechanical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.2.5 Field Emission Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.3 Grain Boundaries in Nanostructured Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7.4 Multifunctional Properties of Nanostructured Metallic
Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.4.1 Mechanical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.4.2 Strength Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.4.3 Superstrength and Ductility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.4.4 Electrical Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.4.5 Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.4.6 Corrosion Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.4.7 Reliability of Nanostructured Materials . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.4.8 Thermal Properties of Nanostructures. . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.4.9 Thermal Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
8 Nanostructured Materials—Design and Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.1 Synthesis of Nanostructured Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
8.2 Nanostructure Synthesis and Fabrication Methods. . . . . . . . . . 98
8.2.1 Physical Vapor Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.3.1 Thermal Chemical Vapor Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.3.2 Metal–Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition
(MOCVD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.4 Solution-Based Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.4.1 Hydrothermal Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
viii Contents
8.4.2 Hydrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.4.3 Aqueous Chemical Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9 Functionalization of Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.1 Aspects of Nanostructure System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.2 Chemistry of Nanostructure Functionalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.3 Need for Functionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.4 Methods of Functionalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.5 Class of Functionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.5.1 Thiol/Aminothiol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.5.2 Bio-functionalization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.5.3 Asymmetric Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.5.4 Polymers in Functionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.5.5 Functionalization of Metals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.5.6 Rare-Earth in Functionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.6 Miscellaneous Functionalized Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
10 Characterization and Technical Analysis of Nanostructured
Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
10.1 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
10.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
10.3 Scanning Probe Microscopies (SPM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
10.4 Field Ion Microscopy (FIM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
10.5 Raman Spectroscopy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
10.6 Absorption Spectroscopy (UV-Vis) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.7 Photoluminescence Spectroscopy (PL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
10.8 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) . . . . 124
10.9 Confocal Microscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
10.10 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
10.11 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
10.12 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
11 Fabrication of Nanostructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
11.1 Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
11.1.1 Photolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
11.1.2 Contact-Mode Photolithography (CMP) . . . . . . . . . . 131
11.1.3 Deep Ultra-Violet Lithography (DUV). . . . . . . . . . . 132
11.1.4 Phase-Shifting Photolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
11.1.5 Electron Beam Lithography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
11.1.6 X-Ray Lithography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
11.1.7 Focused Ion Beam (FIB) Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . 136
11.1.8 Neutral Atomic Beam Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Contents ix
11.2 Nanolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
11.2.1 AFM Based Nanolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
11.2.2 Soft Lithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
11.2.3 Microcontact Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
11.2.4 Molding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
11.2.5 Nanoimprint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
11.2.6 Dip-Pen Nanolithography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
11.3 Etching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
12 Nanostructured Materials for Optical and Electronic
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
12.1 Applications of Nanostructured Materials in Solar Cells . . . . . 149
12.1.1 Dye-Sensitized Nanostructured ZnO Electrodes
for Solar Cell Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
12.2 Photoconductive Oxide Nanowires as Nanoscale
Optoelectronic Switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
12.3 Energy Storage, Batteries, Fuel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
12.4 Nanostructured Semiconductor Materials for Optoelectronic
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
12.5 Carbon-Based Sensors and Electronics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
13 Nanostructured Materials for Bioapplications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
13.1 Nanostructured Ti and Ti Alloys for Biomedical
Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
13.2 Nanostructured Materials for Biosensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
13.3 Nanobiotechnology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
13.4 Gene Therapy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
13.5 Bioimaging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
13.6 Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . 165
13.7 Bone Implant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
13.8 Modulated Drug Delivery System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
13.9 DNA Biosensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
13.10 Glucose Biosensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
13.11 Therapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
13.11.1 Photodynamic Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
13.11.2 Chemotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
13.11.3 Photothermal Therapy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
14 Nanostructured Materials for Photonic Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 171
14.1 Optical Waveguides Based on Small Organic Molecules. . . . . 172
14.2 Optically Pumped Organic Lasers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
14.3 3D Photonic Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
14.4 Photonic LEDs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174