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Nanosatellites Nanosatellites Space and Ground Technologies, Operations and Economics Edited by Rogerio Atem de Carvalho ReferenceCenterforEmbeddedandAerospaceSystems(CRSEA) PolodeInovaçãoCamposdosGoytacazes(PICG) InstitutoFederalFluminense(IFF) Brazil Jaime Estela SpectrumAerospaceGroup Germering Germany Martin Langer InstituteofAstronautics TechnicalUniversityofMunich Garching Germany and OrbitalOracleTechnologiesGmbH Munich Germany Thiseditionfirstpublished2020 ©2020JohnWiley&SonsLtd Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,or transmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orotherwise, exceptaspermittedbylaw.Adviceonhowtoobtainpermissiontoreusematerialfromthistitleisavailable athttp://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. TherightofRogerioAtemdeCarvalho,JaimeEstela,andMartinLangertobeidentifiedastheauthorsof theeditorialmaterialinthisworkhasbeenassertedinaccordancewithlaw. 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LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData Names:Carvalho,RogérioAtemde,author.|Estela,Jaime,1972-author.| Langer,Martin,1986-author. Title:Nanosatellites:spaceandgroundtechnologies,operationsand economics/ProfessorRogerioAtemdeCarvalho,UniversityofFluminese, Rio,Brazil,JaimeEstela,SpectrumAerospaceGroup,Germering,Germany, MartinLanger,TechnicalUniversityofMunich&OrbitalOracle TechnologiesGmbH,Bavaria,Germany. Description:Firstedition.|Hoboken,NJ:Wiley,[2020]|Includes bibliographicalreferencesandindex. Identifiers:LCCN2019049523(print)|LCCN2019049524(ebook)|ISBN 9781119042037(hardback)|ISBN9781119042068(adobepdf)|ISBN 9781119042051(epub) Subjects:LCSH:Microspacecraft. Classification:LCCTL795.4.C372020(print)|LCCTL795.4(ebook)|DDC 629.46–dc23 LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019049523 LCebookrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2019049524 CoverDesign:Wiley CoverImage:©StocktrekImages/GettyImages Setin9.5/12.5ptSTIXTwoTextbySPiGlobal,Chennai,India 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 v Contents ListofContributors xxiii Foreword:NanosatelliteSpaceExperiment xxix IntroductionbytheEditors xxxv 1I-1 ABriefHistoryofNanosatellites 1 SiegfriedW.Janson 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 HistoricalNanosatelliteLaunchRates 1 1.3 TheFirstNanosatellites 3 1.4 TheLargeSpaceEra 8 1.5 TheNewSpaceEra 12 1.5.1 TechnologyDevelopment 18 1.5.2 CommercialNanosatellitesandConstellations 22 1.6 Summary 23 References 24 2I-2a On-boardComputerandDataHandling 31 JaimeEstelaandSergioMontenegro 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 History 31 2.3 SpecialRequirementsforSpaceApplications 34 2.4 Hardware 35 2.4.1 Components 35 2.4.2 BriefHistoryofOn-boardComputers 36 2.4.3 Processors 37 2.4.3.1 FieldProgrammableGateArray(FPGA) 38 2.4.4 MassMemory 39 2.4.5 Bus 40 2.5 Design 41 2.5.1 SystemArchitecture 41 2.5.2 CentralVersusDistributedProcessing 43 2.5.3 DesignCriteria 44 2.5.4 DefinitionofRequirements 45 vi Contents 2.5.5 ResourceEstimationandDataBudget 45 2.5.5.1 DataBudgetAnalysis 47 2.5.6 Commanding 47 2.5.7 Telemetry 48 2.5.8 TimeGeneration 48 2.5.9 HandlingofErrors 48 2.5.10 RadiationEffects 49 References 49 3I-2b OperationalSystems 51 LucasRamosHissaandRogerioAtemdeCarvalho 3.1 Introduction 51 3.2 RTOSOverview 51 3.3 RTOSonOn-boardComputers(OBCs):RequirementsforaSmallSatellite 52 3.3.1 Requirements 54 3.4 ExampleProjects 55 3.5 Conclusions 56 References 59 4I-2c AttitudeControlandDetermination 61 WillemH.SteynandVaiosJ.Lappas 4.1 Introduction 61 4.2 ADCSFundamentals 61 4.3 ADCSRequirementsandStabilizationMethods 62 4.4 ADCSBackgroundTheory 65 4.4.1 CoordinateFrameDefinitions 65 4.4.2 AttitudeKinematics 65 4.4.3 AttitudeDynamics 66 4.5 AttitudeandAngularRateDetermination 66 4.5.1 TRIADQuaternionDetermination 67 4.5.2 KalmanRateEstimator 67 4.5.2.1 SystemModel 68 4.5.2.2 MeasurementModel 68 4.5.3 Full-StateExtendedKalmanFilterEstimator 70 4.6 AttitudeandAngularRateControllers 72 4.6.1 DetumblingMagneticControllers 72 4.6.2 Y-MomentumWheelController 73 4.6.3 Three-axisReactionWheelController 74 4.7 ADCSSensorandActuatorHardware 75 4.7.1 Three-AxisMagnetometers 75 4.7.2 SunSensors 77 4.7.3 StarTrackers 77 4.7.4 MEMSRateSensors 78 4.7.5 Magnetorquers 79 4.7.6 Reaction/MomentumWheels 80 Contents vii 4.7.7 OrbitControlSensorsandActuators 81 4.7.8 IntegratedADCSModules 81 References 83 5I-2d PropulsionSystems 85 FlaviaTataNardini,MicheleColetti,AlexanderReissner,andDavidKrejci 5.1 Introduction 85 5.2 PropulsionElements 86 5.3 KeyElementsintheDevelopmentofMicropropulsionSystems 87 5.4 PropulsionSystemTechnologies 90 5.4.1 ChemicalPropulsionTechnologies 90 5.4.1.1 ColdGasThruster 90 5.4.1.2 MonopropellantEngines 90 5.4.1.3 BipropellantEngines 92 5.4.1.4 SolidPropellantEngines 92 5.4.2 ElectricPropulsionTechnologies 93 5.4.2.1 Resistojet 93 5.4.2.2 GriddedIonEngine(GIE) 93 5.4.2.3 HallEffectThruster 94 5.4.2.4 PulsedPlasmaThruster(PPT)andVacuumArcThruster(VAT) 95 5.4.2.5 Colloid/ElectrosprayandField-emissionThruster 96 5.5 MissionElements 98 5.5.1 OrbitChange 98 5.5.2 DragCompensation 99 5.5.3 Deorbiting 100 5.5.4 AttitudeControl 101 5.6 SurveyofAllExistingSystems 101 5.7 FutureProspect 113 References 113 6I-2e Communications 115 NicolasAppel,SebastianRückerl,MartinLanger,andRolf-DieterKlein 6.1 Introduction 115 6.2 RegulatoryConsiderations 116 6.3 SatelliteLinkCharacteristics 117 6.3.1 DigitalModulation 121 6.4 ChannelCoding 123 6.4.1 ConvolutionalCodes 125 6.4.2 BlockCodes 125 6.5 DataLinkLayer 126 6.6 Hardware 128 6.6.1 Antennas 128 6.6.2 Oscillators 130 6.6.3 PLLsandSynthesizers 132 6.6.4 Mixers 135 viii Contents 6.6.5 Receiver 137 6.6.6 Transmitter 137 6.6.7 Transceivers 138 6.7 Testing 138 6.7.1 ModulationQuality 138 6.7.2 PowerMeasurement 139 6.7.3 SpectrumAnalysis 140 References 140 7I-2f StructuralSubsystem 143 KenanY.S¸anl𝚤türk,MuratSüer,andA.RüstemAslan 7.1 DefinitionandTasks 143 7.2 ExistingState-of-the-ArtStructuresforCubeSats 145 7.3 MaterialsandThermalConsiderationsforStructuralDesign 150 7.4 DesignParametersandTools 152 7.4.1 StructuralDesignParameters 153 7.4.2 ThermalDesignConsiderations 157 7.5 DesignChallenges 162 7.6 FutureProspects 163 References 164 8I-2g PowerSystems 167 MarcosCompadre,AusiasGarrigós,andAndrewStrain 8.1 Introduction 167 8.2 PowerSource:PhotovoltaicSolarCellsandSolarArray 170 8.3 EnergyStorage:Lithium-ionBatteries 172 8.4 SA-batteryPowerConditioning:DETandMPPT 175 8.5 BatteryChargingControlLoops 178 8.6 BusPowerConditioningandDistribution:LoadConvertersandDistribution Switches 179 8.7 FlightSwitchSubsystem 183 8.8 DC/DCConverters 183 8.8.1 BuckConverter 184 8.8.2 BoostConverter 185 8.8.3 SEPICConverter 186 8.9 PowerSystemSizing:PowerBudget,SolarArray,andBatterySelection 187 8.10 Conclusions 191 References 191 9I-2h ThermalDesign,Analysis,andTest 193 PhilippReiss,MatthiasKillian,andPhilippHager 9.1 Introduction 193 9.1.1 ThermalChallenges 194 9.2 TypicalThermalLoads 194 9.2.1 HeatExchangeCalculation 195 Contents ix 9.2.2 ThermalEnvironmentinEarthOrbit 197 9.2.2.1 DirectSolarRadiation 197 9.2.2.2 AlbedoRadiation 199 9.2.2.3 EarthInfraredRadiation 199 9.3 ActiveandPassiveDesigns 200 9.3.1 SurfaceFinishes 200 9.3.2 Insulation 201 9.3.3 Radiators 202 9.3.4 InterfaceConnectionsandHeatPipes 203 9.3.5 ElectricalHeaters 204 9.4 DesignApproachandTools 204 9.4.1 NumericalMethods 204 9.4.2 ModelingApproaches 205 9.4.2.1 Top-DownApproach 205 9.4.2.2 Bottom-UpApproach 206 9.4.3 ModelUncertaintyandMargins 207 9.4.3.1 ModelingUncertainty 207 9.4.3.2 TemperatureMargins 208 9.4.4 ThermalDesignTools 208 9.5 ThermalTests 208 9.5.1 TypesofThermalTest 209 9.5.1.1 ThermalBalanceTest 209 9.5.1.2 Thermal-VacuumTest 210 9.5.1.3 ThermalCycleTest 210 9.5.2 GuidelinesforThermal-VacuumTestPreparations 211 References 212 10I-2i SystemsEngineeringandQualityAssessment 215 LucasLopesCosta,GeilsonLoureiro,EduardoEscobarBürger,andFrancieleCarlesso 10.1 Introduction 215 10.2 SystemsEngineeringDefinitionandProcess 216 10.2.1 ArchitectureDevelopmentProcess 219 10.3 SpaceProjectManagement:RoleofSystemsEngineers 222 10.4 ECSSandOtherStandards 225 10.5 Document,RiskControl,andResources 228 10.6 ChangingTrendsinSEandQualityAssessmentforNanosatellites 233 References 233 11I-2j IntegrationandTesting 235 EduardoEscobarBürger,GeilsonLoureiro,andLucasLopesCosta 11.1 Introduction 235 11.1.1 Integration 236 11.1.2 Testing 236 11.2 OverallTasks 236 11.2.1 IntegrationTasks 237