Nanophysics of Solar and Renewable Energy

265 Pages·2012·6.594 MB·English

by  Edward L. Wolf

Edward L. Wolf
Nanophysics of Solar and
Renewable Energy
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Edward L. Wolf
Nanophysics of Solar and
Renewable Energy
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In Memory of Ned
Edward O’Brien Wolf
1973–2011
VII
Contents
Preface XIII
1 ASurveyofLong-TermEnergyResources 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.1 DirectSolarInflux 6
1.1.1.1 PropertiesoftheSun 6
1.1.1.2 AnIntroductiontoFusionReactionsontheSun 10
1.1.1.3 DistributionofSolarInfluxforConversion 13
1.1.2 SecondarySolar-DrivenSources 14
1.1.2.1 FlowEnergy 14
1.1.2.2 HydroelectricPower 18
1.1.2.3 OceanWaves 20
1.1.3 Earth-BasedLong-TermEnergyResources 22
1.1.3.1 LunarOceanTidalMotion 22
1.1.3.2 GeothermalEnergy 24
1.1.3.3 TheEarth’sDeuteriumanditsPotential 25
1.1.4 PlanofThisBook 26
2 PhysicsofNuclearFusion:theSourceofall
Solar-RelatedEnergy 27
2.1 Introduction:ProtonsintheSun’sCore 28
2.2 Schrodinger’sEquationfortheMotionofParticles 30
2.2.1 Time-DependentEquation 32
2.2.2 Time-IndependentEquation 32
2.2.3 BoundStatesInsideaOne-DimensionalPotential
Well,E > 0 33
2.3 ProtonsandNeutronsandTheirBinding 35
2.4 Gamow’sTunnelingModelAppliedtoFusion
intheSun’sCore 35
2.5 ASurveyofNuclearProperties 43
VIII Contents
3 Atoms,Molecules,andSemiconductorDevices 49
3.1 Bohr’sModeloftheHydrogenAtom 49
3.2 ChargeMotioninPeriodicPotential 52
3.3 EnergyBandsandGaps 53
3.3.1 PropertiesofaMetal:ElectronsinanEmptyBox(I) 57
3.4 Atoms,Molecules,andtheCovalentBond 60
3.4.1 PropertiesofaMetal:ElectronsinanEmptyBox(II) 66
þ
3.4.2 HydrogenMoleculeIonH 69
2
3.5 TetrahedralBondinginSiliconandRelatedSemiconductors 71
3.5.1 ConnectionwithDirectedorCovalentBonds 72
3.5.2 BondAngle 72
3.6 DonorandAcceptorImpurities;ChargeConcentrations 73
3.6.1 HydrogenicDonorsandExcitonsinSemiconductors,Direct
andIndirectBandgaps 75
3.6.2 CarrierConcentrationsinSemiconductors 76
3.6.3 TheDegenerateMetallicSemiconductor 79
3.7 ThePNJunction,DiodeI–VCharacteristic,PhotovoltaicCell 80
3.8 MetalsandPlasmas 84
4 TerrestrialApproachestoFusionEnergy 87
4.1 DeuteriumFusionDemonstrationBasedonFieldIonization 88
4.1.1 ElectricFieldIonizationofDeuterium(Hydrogen) 94
4.2 DeuteriumFusionDemonstrationBasedonMuonicHydrogen 96
4.2.1 CatalysisofDDFusionbyMuMesons 101
4.3 DeuteriumFusionDemonstrationinLargerScalePlasma
Reactors 102
4.3.1 ElectricalHeatingofthePlasma 103
4.3.2 ScalingtheFusionPowerDensityfromthatintheSun 104
4.3.3 AdaptDDPlasmaAnalysistoDTPlasmaasinITER 104
4.3.4 Summary,aCorrection,andFurtherComments 110
5 IntroductiontoSolarEnergyConversion 115
5.1 SunasanEnergySource,SpectrumonEarth 115
5.2 HeatEnginesandThermodynamics,CarnotEfficiency 117
5.3 SolarThermalElectricPower 119
5.4 GenerationsofPhotovoltaicSolarCells 122
5.5 UtilizingSolarPowerwithPhotovoltaics:theRooftopsof
NewYorkversusSpaceSatellites 125
5.6 ThePossibilityofSpace-BasedSolarPower 126
6 SolarCellsBasedonSinglePNJunctions 133
6.1 Single-JunctionCells 133
6.1.1 SiliconCrystallineCells 136
6.1.2 GaAsEpitaxiallyGrownSolarCells 141
6.1.3 Single-JunctionLimitingConversionEfficiency 141
Contents IX
6.2 Thin-FilmSolarCellsversusCrystallineCells 145
6.3 CIGS(CuIn1(cid:2)xGaxSe2)Thin-FilmSolarCells 147
6.3.1 PrintingCellsontoLarge-AreaFlexibleSubstrates 147
6.4 CdTeThin-FilmCells 151
6.5 Dye-SensitizedSolarCells 153
6.5.1 PrincipleofDyeSensitizationtoExtendSpectralRange
totheRed 154
6.5.2 QuestionsofEfficiency 155
6.6 PolymerOrganicSolarCells 155
6.6.1 ABasicSemiconductingPolymerSolarCell 156
7 MultijunctionandEnergyConcentratingSolarCells 157
7.1 TandemCells,PremiumandLowCost 158
7.1.1 GaAs-basedTandemSingle-CrystalCells,aNearText-Book
Example 158
7.1.2 ASmallerScaleConcentratorTechnologyBuilt
onMultijunctionCells 162
7.1.3 Low-CostTandemTechnology:AdvancedTandemSemiconducting
PolymerCells 163
7.1.3.1 Band-EdgeEnergiesintheMultilayerTandemSemiconductor
PolymerStructure 165
7.1.3.2 PerformanceoftheAdvancedPolymerTandemCell 166
7.1.4 Low-CostTandemTechnology:AmorphousSilicon:H-Based
SolarCells 166
7.2 OrganicMoleculesasSolarConcentrators 169
7.3 SpectralSplittingCells 171
7.4 SummaryandCommentsonEfficiency 172
7.5 ANicheApplicationofConcentratingCellsonPontoons 172
8 Third-GenerationConcepts,SurveyofEfficiency 175
8.1 IntermediateBandCells 175
8.2 ImpactIonizationandCarrierMultiplication 177
8.2.1 ElectronsandHolesina3D‘‘QuantumDot’’ 180
8.3 FerromagneticMaterialsforSolarConversion 182
8.4 Efficiencies:ThreeGenerationsofCells 185
9 CellsforHydrogenGeneration;AspectsofHydrogenStorage 187
9.1 IntermittencyofRenewableEnergy 187
9.2 ElectrolysisofWater 187
9.3 EfficientPhotocatalyticDissociationofWaterintoHydrogen
andOxygen 188
9.3.1 TandemCellasWaterSplitter 190
9.3.2 PossibilityofaMassProductionTandemCell
Water-SplittingDevice 191
9.3.3 PossibilitiesforDual-PurposeThin-FilmTandemCellDevices 193
X Contents
9.4 The‘‘ArtificialLeaf’’ofNocera 193
9.5 HydrogenFuelCellStatus 194
9.6 StorageandTransportofHydrogenasaPotentialFuel 195
9.7 SurfaceAdsorptionforStoringHydrogeninHighDensity 196
9.7.1 Titanium-DecoratedCarbonNanotubeCloth 199
9.8 EconomicsofHydrogen 200
9.8.1 FurtherAspectsofStorageandTransportofHydrogen 200
9.8.2 HydrogenasPotentialIntermediateinU.S.Electricity
Distribution 201
10 Large-ScaleFabrication,LearningCurves,andEconomics
IncludingStorage 203
10.1 FabricationMethodsVarybutExhibitSimilarLearningCurves 203
10.2 LearningStrategiesforModuleCost 205
10.3 Thin-FilmCells,NanoinksforPrintingSolarCells 207
10.4 Large-ScaleScenarioBasedonThin-FilmCdTeorCIGSCells 209
10.4.1 SolarInflux,CellEfficiency,andSizeofSolarFieldRequired
toMeetDemand 210
10.4.2 Economicsof‘‘PrintingPress’’CIGSorCdTeCellProduction
toSatisfyU.S.ElectricDemand 211
10.4.3 ProjectedTotalCapitalNeed,ConditionsforProfitable
PrivateInvestment 212
10.5 ComparisonofSolarPowerversusWindPower 214
10.6 TheImportanceofStorageandGridManagementto
Large-ScaleUtilization 215
10.6.1 Batteries:fromLead–AcidtoLithiumtoSodiumSulfur 217
10.6.2 BasicsofLithiumBatteries 218
10.6.3 NiMH 220
11 ProspectsforSolarandRenewablePower 223
11.1 RapidGrowthinSolarandWindPower 223
11.2 RenewableEnergyBeyondSolarandWind 225
11.3 TheLegacyWorld,DevelopingCountries,andthe
ThirdWorld 226
11.4 CanEnergySupplyMeetDemandintheLongerFuture? 227
11.4.1 The‘‘OilBubble’’ 227
11.4.2 The‘‘EnergyMiracle’’ 229
AppendixA:Exercises 231
ExercisestoChapter1 231
ExercisestoChapter2 232
ExercisestoChapter3 233
ExercisestoChapter4 234
ExercisestoChapter5 236
ExercisestoChapter6 236
Contents XI
ExercisestoChapter7 237
ExercisestoChapter8 238
ExercisestoChapter9 238
ExercisestoChapter10 238
ExercisestoChapter11 239
GlossaryofAbbreviations 241
References 245
Index 251