Nanolithography: The art of fabricating nanoelectronic and nanophotonic devices and systems

597 Pages·2014·41.632 MB·English

by  Martin Feldman

Nanolithography
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials:
Number 42
Nanolithography
The art of fabricating
nanoelectronic and nanophotonic
devices and systems
Edited by
Martin Feldman
Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited,
80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK
www.woodheadpublishing.com
www.woodheadpublishingonline.com
Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia,
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First published 2014, Woodhead Publishing Limited
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
Contents
Contributor contact details xiii
Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and
Optical Materials xvii
Preface xxiii
1 Optical projection lithography 1
B. W. Smith, Rochester Institute of Technology, USA
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Lithography technology and trends 1
1.3 Fundamentals of optical lithography 5
1.4 Image evaluation 8
1.5 Projection lithography systems 13
1.6 Wavelengths for optical lithography 22
1.7 Lithography in the deep ultraviolet (UV) 23
1.8 Resolution enhancement technology 27
1.9 Immersion lithography 36
1.10 Multiple patterning optical lithography 38
1.11 Conclusion 40
1.12 References 40
2 Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography 42
B. J. Rice, SEMATECH, USA
2.1 Introduction 42
2.2 EUV sources 52
2.3 EUV optics 58
2.4 EUV masks 62
2.5 EUV resists 70
2.6 EUV integration and implementation challenges 73
2.7 Conclusion and future trends 75
2.8 Acknowledgments 76
2.9 References 77
v
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
vi Contents
3 Electron beam lithography 8 0
T. R. Groves, University at Albany (SUNY), USA
3.1 Introduction 80
3.2 Using pixel parallelism to address the throughput
bottleneck 84
3.3 The tradeoff between resolution and throughput 96
3.4 Distributed systems 100
3.5 Ultimate lithographic resolution 104
3.6 Electron-beam patterning of photomasks for
optical lithography 107
3.7 Conclusion 110
3.8 Acknowledgements 111
3.9 References 111
4 Focused ion beams for nano-machining
and imaging 116
M. Utlaut, University of Portland, USA
4.1 Introduction 116
4.2 An adumbrated history of focused ion beams (FIBs) 118
4.3 Sources of ions: a quartet of types 119
4.4 Charged particle optics 125
4.5 Ion-matter interactions 128
4.6 Milling 138
4.7 Deposition 145
4.8 Imaging 147
4.9 Spectroscopy 153
4.10 Conclusion and future trends 153
4.11 References 155
5 Masks for micro- and nanolithography 158
E. Gallagher and M. Hibbs, IBM Microelectronics
Inc., USA
5.1 Introduction 158
5.2 Mask materials 162
5.3 Mask process 167
5.4 Mask metrology 168
5.5 Defects and masks 172
5.6 Conclusion 177
5.7 References 178
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
Contents vii
6 Maskless photolithography 179
M. E. Walsh and F. Zhang, LumArray, Inc., USA,
R. Menon, University of Utah, USA, and H. I. Smith,
LumArray, Inc. and Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, USA
6.1 Introduction 179
6.2 The use of photons as opposed to charged particles 180
6.3 Forms of maskless photolithography 181
6.4 Zone-plate-array lithography (ZPAL) 183
6.5 Proximity-effect correction 186
6.6 Extending the resolution of ZPAL 187
6.7 Commercialization of ZPAL by LumArray, Inc. 189
6.8 Conclusion 191
6.9 References 192
7 Chemistry and processing of resists for
nanolithography 194
A. Novembre, Princeton University, USA and
S. Liu, IBM Corporation, USA
7.1 Introduction 194
7.2 Resists for optical lithography: synthesis and
radiation induced chemistry of resists as a function
of exposure technology 200
7.3 Chemically amplifi ed resist process considerations 215
7.4 Chemically amplifi ed resists for 193 nm lithography 217
7.5 Resists for extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL) 231
7.6 Resists for electron beam lithography 234
7.7 Resists for selected forward looking lithographic technologies 265
7.8 Resist resolution limitations 268
7.9 Conclusion 270
7.10 References 271
8 Directed assembly nanolithography 287
S. Matsui, University of Hyogo, Japan, M. Takenaka,
Kyoto University, Japan and H. Yoshida, Hitachi Research
Laboratory, Japan
8.1 Introduction 287
8.2 Block copolymers in lithography 287
8.3 Directed self-assembly of block copolymers 294
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
viii Contents
8.4 Programmable three-dimensional lithography 302
8.5 Conclusion 310
8.6 References 311
9 Nanoimprint lithography 315
D. Resnick, Molecular Imprints Inc., USA
9.1 Introduction 315
9.2 An overview of imprint lithography 320
9.3 Soft lithography 321
9.4 Thermal imprint lithography 322
9.5 Alternative thermal imprint processes 327
9.6 Ultraviolet (UV) nanoimprint lithography overview 330
9.7 Jet and fl ash imprint lithography 331
9.8 Roll to roll imprint lithography 340
9.9 Defectivity 342
9.10 Conclusions 344
9.11 Acknowledgments 345
9.12 References 345
10 Nanostructures: fabrication and applications 348
X. Cheng, Texas A&M University, USA
10.1 Introduction 348
10.2 Characterization of nanostructures 350
10.3 Methods to create nanostructures: top-down fabrication of
nanostructures 350
10.4 Methods to create nanostructures: bottom-up fabrication of
nanostructures 358
10.5 Properties of nanostructures 364
10.6 Applications of nanostructures 370
10.7 References 371
11 Nanophotonics: devices for manipulating light at the
nanoscale 376
P. Dastmalchi, A. Haddadpour and G. Veronis,
Louisiana State University, USA
11.1 Introduction 376
11.2 Photonic crystals 377
11.3 Ring resonators 379
11.4 Extraordinary optical transmission through subwavelength
apertures 382
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Contents ix
11.5 Optical nanoantennas 384
11.6 Plasmonic focusing 387
11.7 Near-fi eld optical microscopy 390
11.8 Plasmonic waveguides 392
11.9 Enhancement of nonlinear processes 393
11.10 Application in photovoltaics 395
11.11 Conclusion 395
11.12 References 396
12 Nanodevices: fabrication, prospects for low
dimensional devices and applications 399
T. Daniels-Race, Louisiana State University, USA
12.1 Introduction 399
12.2 Motivation for nanodevices 401
12.3 Nanofabrication: creating the building blocks for devices 403
12.4 Prospects for low dimensional devices 408
12.5 Beyond the bottom-up: hybrid nanoelectronics 413
12.6 Conclusion and future trends 417
12.7 References 417
13 Microfl uidics: technologies and applications 424
L. Jiang and N. S. Korivi, Tuskegee University, USA
13.1 Introduction 424
13.2 Current trends in microfl uidics 425
13.3 Present state of technology 429
13.4 Applications 434
13.5 Future trends 436
13.6 Conclusion 440
13.7 Sources of further information and advice 440
13.8 References 441
14 Modeling of nanolithography processes 444
A. Isoyan and L. S. Melvin III, Synopsys Inc., USA
14.1 Introduction 444
14.2 Optical lithography modeling 445
14.3 The optical system in optical lithography modeling 449
14.4 Photoresist model 453
14.5 Model critical dimension (CD) extraction 454
14.6 Diffi culties in modeling 455
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
x Contents
14.7 Extreme ultraviolet (EUV)/electron beam
lithography modeling 457
14.8 Conclusion 462
14.9 References 462
15 Mask-substrate alignment via interferometric moiré
fringes 466
E. E. Moon, Massachussetts Institute of Technology, USA
15.1 Introduction 466
15.2 Background to alignment methods 467
15.3 Fundamentals of interferometric-spatial-phase imaging 472
15.4 Implementation of moiré 475
15.5 Characteristics of moir é fringe formation 479
15.6 Performance of ISPI 494
15.7 Backside ISPI 497
15.8 Conclusion and future trends 500
15.9 References 501
16 Sidewall roughness in nanolithography: origins,
metrology and device effects 503
V. Constantoudis and E. Gogolides, NCSR Demokritos,
Greece and G. P. Patsis, Technological Educational
Institution of Athens, Greece
16.1 Introduction 503
16.2 Metrology and characterization 505
16.3 Process and material effects: modeling and simulation 513
16.4 Process and material effects: experimental results 515
16.5 Impact on device performance 523
16.6 Conclusions 530
16.7 References 532
17 New applications and emerging technologies in
nanolithography 538
F. Yesilkoy, C. Ropp, Z. Cummins, R. Probst, E. Waks,
B. Shapiro and M. Peckerar, University of Maryland, USA
17.1 Introduction 538
17.2 Applications of high-resolution patterning to new device
structures: advances in tunneling structures 541
17.3 Geometry control of the tunnel junctions 543
17.4 The quantum dot placement problem 547
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014