MYANMAR BUDDHISM OF THE PAGAN PERIOD (AD 1000-1300) BY WIN THAN TUN (MA

401 Pages·2003·16.25 MB·English

MYANMAR BUDDHISM
OF
THE PAGAN PERIOD (AD 1000-1300)

BY
WIN THAN TUN
(MA, Mandalay University)

A THESIS SUBMITTED
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
SOUTHEAST ASIAN STUDIES PROGRAMME
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
2002
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to the people who have contributed to the successful
completion of this thesis. First of all, I wish to express my gratitude to the National
University of Singapore which offered me a 3-year scholarship for this study.
I wish to express my indebtedness to Professor Than Tun. Although I have never
been his student, I was taught with his book on Old Myanmar (Khet-hoà: Mranmâ Râjawaà),
and I learnt a lot from my discussions with him; and, therefore, I regard him as one of my
teachers. I am also greatly indebted to my Sayas Dr. Myo Myint and Professor Han Tint, and
friends U Ni Tut, U Yaw Han Tun and U Soe Kyaw Thu of Mandalay University for helping
me with the sources I needed. I also owe my gratitude to U Win Maung (Tampavatî) (who let
me use his collection of photos and negatives), U Zin Moe (who assisted me in making a raw
map of Pagan), Bob Hudson (who provided me with some unpublished data on the
monuments of Pagan), and David Kyle Latinis for his kind suggestions on writing my early
chapters. I’m greatly indebted to Cho Cho (Centre for Advanced Studies in Architecture,
NUS) for providing me with some of the drawings: figures 2, 22, 25, 26 and 38.
I also desire to acknowledge my indebtedness to my old colleagues from the
Myanmar Archaeology Department and many people of Pagan who helped me in various
ways on my visit to Pagan on a NUS funded project for recording the mural paintings there:
U Nyunt Han, U Aung Kyaing, U San Win, U Kyaw Oo Lwin and U Kyi Lin in particular.
My special thanks go to Dr. John Norman Miksic, the primary investigator of this project and
my supervisor, who let me take part in this project and gave me generous suggestions as to
my thesis.

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CONTENTS
PAGE
SUMMARY............................................................................................................................................iv
LIST OF CHARTS..................................................................................................................................vi
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................vii
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS.................................................................................................x
NOTES ON TRANSLITERATION AND UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS..........................................xi

CHAPTERS
1. INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................1
2. MYANMAR FAITH...................................................................................................................13
3. BUDDHISM IN PAGAN............................................................................................................38
4. BUDDHISM AND THE PAGAN ECONOMY.........................................................................71
5. BUDDHIST SECTS I
WHAT WERE THE DIFFERENT BUDDHIST SECTS?..............................................................94
6. BUDDHIST SECTS II
HOW AND WHEN WERE THE PAGAN BUDDHIST SECTS FORMED?..............................120
7. BUDDHIST TEMPLES AND STUPAS...................................................................................147
8. BUDDHIST MONASTERIES..................................................................................................215
9. BUDDHIST ART......................................................................................................................254
10. CONCLUSION.........................................................................................................................285

BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................303
APPENDICES......................................................................................................................................311

iii
SUMMARY
The Myanmars must have become Buddhists soon after they entered the central plains of
Myanmar in about the 9th century AD. Pagan Buddhism, although primarily Theravada, was
influenced by Mahayanism and was also mixed up with Brahmanism. In addition, the
Myanmars did not forsake their earlier beliefs (nâga-and spirit-worships).
Although Pagan had contacts with India before establishing relations with Sri Lanka
and throughout the Pagan period, we cannot attribute all the unorthodox practices to India.
For instance, the monks’ recitation of the parittas, acceptance of the slaves donated to them,
and their possession of money most likely came from Sri Lanka. The existence of
Brahmanism and of Mahayana influence in Sri Lanka undoubtedly was the reason why
Myanmar Buddhism did not become more orthodox in spite of its continued contacts with Sri
Lanka.
The most important effect of contacts with Sri Lanka was on the Sangha. In the
earlier period (till the end of Kyansittha’s reign [1084-1113]), there seems to have been only a
sect of Buddhist monks with Saà titles (Saàkrî, Saàlyaà and Saà). From Alaungsithu’s reign
(1113-1161) onwards, the monks’ names with Phun titles ([Phun]mlatkrîcwâ, [Phun]mlatso,
Phunsañ, etc.) appear in the inscriptions. That many of these later monks with Phun titles
were forest monks connected with the Sinhalese Sangha indicates this sect’s connection with
Sri Lanka. The paèsukûlikas also used Phun titles. The Phun monks increased rapidly and
seemed to have absorbed the Saà monks. The forest monks with Phun titles initiated the
Saàgha reform in the middle of the 13th century. That the Phun sect grew rapidly while the
Saà sect began to decline in the second quarter of the 13th century suggests that the Saàgha
reform was effected during that time.
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Parallel changes can be seen in architecture and art. Some changes, such as the
increasing popularity of small buildings in the later period, certainly must have been
connected with Pagan’s contacts with Sri Lanka and thus with the change in the Sangha. The
rapid increase of buildings in the latter half of the Pagan period must have been partly due to
Pagan’s economic development resulted by the expansion of cultivation that began from the
1190s onwards, and partly to the growth of the Phun sect. The change from the predominance
of stupa over temple in the early period to the ascendancy of temple over stupa in the later
period as well as the change in painting style very probably resulted from the influx of
Indians.
As Pagan’s contact with Sri Lanka was through monks, Sinhalese influence is more
visible on the Sangha and faith. Since Pagan’s contact with India, on the other hand, was
mainly through slaves and laborers, its effects are more noticeable in art and architecture.
This does not mean that all the changes are due to these contacts. First, Pagan had
contacts with other countries too. More importantly, local preferences must have played a far
greater role than any foreign influence, though there is no way to trace them directly.
v
LIST OF CHARTS
Chart Page
1. COMPARISON OF SAÀ AND PHUN MONKS.............................................................................140
2. SINGLE-IMAGE TEMPLE TYPES (BY SHAPE OF PLAN)........................................................164
3. THIRTEENTH-CENTURY TEMPLES (BY THE NUMBER OF ENTRANCES)........................168
4. TEMPLE TYPES (BY THE NUMBER OF IMAGES)...................................................................197
5. TEMPLE TOPS (BY CENTURY)...................................................................................................199
6. PAGAN MONUMENTS (BY SIZE RANGE)................................................................................208
7. TEMPLE STUPA RATIO................................................................................................................210

vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1. KHARUIÀ AND TUIK AREAS.........................................................................................................73
2. PLAN OF ABEYADANA (MONUMENT 1202)...........................................................................151
3. GROUND FLOOR PLAN OF HLAINGSHE (MONUMENT 369)................................................153
4. PLAN OF MONUMENT 1026........................................................................................................154
5. PLAN OF LAWKAHTEIKPAN (MONUMENT 1580)..................................................................154
6. PLAN OF LINPYA GU (MONUMENT 56)...................................................................................157
7. PLAN OF YATSAUK (MONUMENT 155)...................................................................................157
8. PLAN OF THAMAN HPAYA (MONUMENT 555)......................................................................158
9. PLAN OF AJAGONA TEMPLE (MONUMENT 588)...................................................................160
10. PLAN OF MONUMENT 148........................................................................................................160
11. PLAN OF SHINBINCHITLHAUK (MONUMENT 1667)...........................................................161
12. PLAN OF EAST KATTHAPA (MONUMENT 505)....................................................................161
13. PLAN OF SHWETHABEIK (MONUMENT 146)........................................................................162
14. A. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPLES WITH PLAIN AND REDENTED OUTLINES
(11TH CENTURY)...................................................................................................................165
B. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPLES WITH PLAIN AND REDENTED OUTLINES
(12TH CENTURY)...................................................................................................................166
C. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPLES WITH PLAIN AND REDENTED OUTLINES
(13TH CENTURY)...................................................................................................................167
15. PLAN OF MONUMENT 666........................................................................................................170
16. PLAN OF MONUMENT 566........................................................................................................172
17. PLAN OF SHWE-LEIK-U (MONUMENT 257)...........................................................................172
18. PLAN OF SINKA-OKTAIK SHE (MONUMENT 1042).............................................................173
19. PLAN OF MONUMENT 1085......................................................................................................173
20. PLAN OF KYANMABAT (MONUMENT 1620).........................................................................175
21. PLAN OF ZANTHI (MONUMENT 558)......................................................................................175
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Figure Page
22. PLAN OF NAGAYON (MONUMENT 1192)..............................................................................177
23. PLAN OF MONUMENT 320........................................................................................................179
24. PLAN OF SHWEMYINTIN (MONUMENT 1018)......................................................................179
25. PLAN OF MANUHA TEMPLE (MONUMENT 1240)................................................................180
26. PLAN OF HPAYATHONZU (MONUMENTS 477, 478 AND 479)............................................180
27. PLAN OF ALOPYE TEMPLE (MONUMENT 374)....................................................................182
28. PLAN OF SULAMANI TEMPLE (MONUMENT 748)...............................................................184
29. PLAN OF ANANDA TEMPLE (MONUMENT 2171).................................................................186
30. PLAN OF KALAGYAUNG (MONUMENT 90)..........................................................................186
31. PLAN OF THAMBULA TEMPLE (MONUMENT 482).............................................................188
32. PLAN OF GUBYAUKNGE (MONUMENT 1391)......................................................................190
33. PLAN OF ASAWKYUN (MONUMENT 491).............................................................................190
34. SINGAN HPAYA (MONUMENT 1790)......................................................................................192
35. ELEPHANT DADO FROM SINGAN HPAYA (MONUMENT 1790)........................................192
36. PLAN OF MINWAING TEMPLE (MONUMENT 680)...............................................................193
37. PLAN OF MONUMENT 51..........................................................................................................193
38. PLAN OF MONUMENT 1148......................................................................................................195
39. SHWEZIGON STUPA (MONUMENT 1).....................................................................................200
40. KATTHAPA THUPA (MONUMENT 495)..................................................................................201
41. BUDDHA IMAGES SURROUNDING A STUPA INSIDE ASAWKYUN
(MONUMENT 491)......................................................................................................................204
42. A. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPLES, STUPAS AND MONASTERIES
(11TH CENTURY)......................................................................................................................211
B. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPLES, STUPAS AND MONASTERIES
(11TH CENTURY).......................................................................................................................212
C. DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPLES, STUPAS AND MONASTERIES
(11TH CENTURY)......................................................................................................................213

viii
Figure Page
43. PLAN OF SOMINGYI MONASTERY (MONUMENT 1147).....................................................217
44. PLAN OF MONUMENTS 1111 AND 1112 (TAMALIN’S MONASTERY
COMPLEX)...................................................................................................................................219
45. PLAN OF KYANSITTHA UMIN (MONUMENT 65).................................................................221
46. PLAN REPRESENTING SINGLE-CELL MONASTERIES WITH MAÚÓAPA.......................223
47. PLAN OF MONUMENT 450........................................................................................................229
48. PLAN OF MONUMENT 76..........................................................................................................232
49. PLAN OF MAHÂKASSAPA’S MONASTERY COMPLEX.......................................................241
50. PLAN OF TAMALIN’S MONASTERY COMPLEX...................................................................243
51. PLAN OF LEMYETHNA MONASTIC COMPLEX....................................................................245
52. PLAN OF INNER PRECINCT OF THE LEMYETHNA MONASTIC COMPLEX....................246
53. SKETCH ILLUSTRATING THE ARRANGEMENTS OF THE EIGHT SCENES
ON A TERRACOTTA TABLET FROM PAGAN.......................................................................261
ix
Symbols and Abbreviations
< derives from

> becomes

IB G.H. Luce and Pe Maung Tin, Inscriptions of Burma. 5 Portfolios (Rangoon:
Rangoon UP, 1933-1956)

ME Myanmar era

OM Old Myanmar

MnM Modern Myanmar

P Pali

qtd. quoted

Skt. Sanskrit

RMK Nyein Maung, Rhe:hoà: Mranmâ Kyokcâmyâ: [Old Myanmar Inscriptions],
vols. 1-5 (Yangon: Archaeology Department, 1972-1998)
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