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MUSSOLINI MUSSOLINI Denis Mack Smith Alfred A. Knopf New York 1982 THIS IS A BORZOI BOOK PUBLISHED BY ALFRED A. KNOPF, INC. Copyright© 1982 by Denis Mack Smith All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York. Distributed by Random House, Inc., New York. Originally published in Great Britain by George Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd., London. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Mack Smith, Denis [date] Mussolini. Bibliography: p. Includes index. 1. Mussolini, Benito, 1883-1945. 2. Italy— Politics and government—1922-1945. 3. Fascism— Italy-History. 4. Heads of state—Italy- Biography. I. Title. DG575.M8M223 1982 945.091'092'4 [B] 81-48127 ISBN 0-394-50694-4 AACR2 Manufactured in the United States of America First American Edition For Catharine, Sophie, and Jacintha ALSO BY DENIS MACK SMITH Garibaldi (editor) Italy, A Modem History Making of Italy 1796 -1870 Medieval Sicily Mussolini’s Roman Empire Contents List of illustrations xi Preface xiii 1 Youth Boyhood, 1883-1901 I Exile, 1902-4 5 2 The socialist Political apprenticeship, 1905-9 9 The agitator, 1910-12 14 Avanti/, 1912-14 20 3 War and peace War, 1914-17 25 Victory, 1918-19 30 4 The fascist movement 1919 35 1920 40 1921 42 1922 48 5 The conquest of power The march on Rome 52 First months in power 56 Dominating the opposition 62 6 The Matteotti crisis Preparation for the elections, 1923 69 Murder incorporated 74 Recovery, June-December 1924 79 7 Fascist government at work Taming the opposition, 1925 87 Early foreign policy 94 Organising the state too 8 Mussolini as leader The private person 106 Mussolini and the economy 116 The Duce 123 The man of culture 131 9 Consolidation and achievement The doctrine of fascism 138 Totalitarianism 143 Foreign policy, 1926-30 151 Settlement with the Church 159 The apotheosis 163 10 In search of strife Increasingly belligerent, 1929-32 170 Starace and the fascist party 175 Relations with Hitler, 1933-4 181 11 War policy Preparations for war 188 War in East Africa, 1935-6 196 War in Spain, 1936-7 203 12 The axis with Germany The first year of the axis, 1937 213 The Anschluss and the racial laws, 1938 217 Munich, 1938 223 13 Alliance with Germany Victory in Spain and Albania 228 The pact of steel, 1939 231 Non-belligerence 237 viii 14 The Second World War The decision for war 246 Firtft months of war 251 The attack on Greece 256 Defeat, 1940-3 Setbacks in Libya and Greece 262 The war in 1941 267 Turn of the tide, 1942 273 Mussolini in defeat 277 The fall from power The vice tightens 287 Dismissal and imprisonment 294 The return 300 The republic of Salò Anarchy at Salò 306 Mussolini in decline 309 The end 316 Notes 321 List of works cited in the notes 389 Index 417 IX
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