Mushroom integrated pest management handbook

92 Pages·1.559 MB·English

by  Pennsylvania

P
E N N S Y L V A N I A
Mushroom
Integrated
Pest
Management
H a n d b o o k
The PA IPM Program is a
collaboration between the
Pennsylvania Department of
Agriculture and The
Pennsylvania State University
College of
Agricultural
aimed at promoting
Sciences
Integrated Pest Management
in both agricultural and
nonagricultural settings.
This publication was developed by the PA IPM program with the cooperation of the American
Mushroom Institute.
Table of Contents
Introduction 4 I. Theory of Integrated Pest II.Integrated Pest Manage-
P. Coles Management 5 ment in Mushroom
Production 20
A.History, Definitions, and the
Economic Threshold 6 A. Specific Control Techniques
S. Fleischer
1. Exclusion 21
B. Pesticides and Resistance in
P. Coles
IPM 13
S. Fleischer 2. Cultural Control 27
P. Coles/W. Barber
3. Biological Control 33
D. Rinker
4. Chemical Control 37
P. Coles
B. Pesticide Safety 43
S. Whitney
C. Pest Species Biology and
Control
1. Arthropod Pests 47
C. Keil
2. Fungal Pathogens 52
P. Coles/W. Barber
3. Weed and Indicator Molds 61
D. Beyer
4. Bacterial Diseases 75
P. Wuest
5. Nematodes 78
P. Coles
6. Virus Disease 85
P. Romaine
I
ntroduction
In this handbook we have addressed the Mushroom growing lends itself natu- Other features of mushroom production
most important pest organisms with the rally to IPM. It is one of the few forms make IPM a necessity, not an option.
potential to reduce mushroom yield and of agriculture in which the crop is With production measured in pounds
quality. The handbook is intended for grown inside climate-controlled per square foot rather than in bushels or
growers, as well as researchers, as both buildings. This offers two advantages tons per acre, mushroom growing is
an educational tool and a reference not available to most other crops. First, very dense farming. If a pest gets into a
manual. Recommendations presented control of the internal environment of room, it can spread rapidly because of
here are not intended to bind growers in the growing room provides an impor- the large amount of food available
their decision-making processes. Rather, tant weapon against many pests. within a relatively small space. In
they should serve as a guide for develop- Temperature and humidity manipula- addition, many pests cannot be con-
ing effective Integrated Pest Manage- tions, for instance, are two of many trolled using chemical pesticides, either
ment (IPM) programs. Each grower cultural options available in mushroom because there are no products labeled
should develop specific operating pest control with IPM. Second, since for mushroom use, or because materials
procedures and checklists specifically the crop is grown indoors, pests can be don’t even exist for a specific type of
tailored for individual use. In addition, excluded. This control measure is pest organism. Increased regulations are
as technology is always changing, this unavailable to farmers of field crops, driving up the cost of producing new
handbook will be updated periodically. who have little control over pest pesticides, making it difficult or
invasion. An effective IPM program impossible for chemical manufacturers
The handbook is divided into two parts,
takes advantage of these particular to invest in a minor-use crop like
covering the theory of IPM and the
characteristics of mushroom growing. mushrooms. Usually, we are forced to
practical aspects of IPM in mushroom
rely on pesticides developed for other
growing. The theory section defines
commodities. An IPM program that
IPM and gives it historical perspective.
excludes pests and takes advantage of
It also explains the concepts of pest
the ability to manipulate the growing
management and types of control, and
environment not only is a more effective
the importance of understanding pest
means of pest control but also allows
life cycles and biology. The section on
limited dependency on chemical
IPM in mushroom growing describes
pesticides.
how unique features of mushroom crops
can be used effectively in IPM, and how These features make the IPM approach
the theory of IPM can be applied the most effective and economical
effectively. means of long-term sustainable pest
control. Anyone trying to control pests
without IPM eventually will end up at
the mercy of those arthropods and
mushroom diseases. We hope this
manual will help you avoid that fate.
4
I.
Theory of
Integrated
Pest
Management
5
A. History, Definitions, and the Economic
Threshold
Shelby J. Fleischer
These efforts at supervised control
Integrated pest manage-
History, Definitions, and declined rapidly when DDT and other
the Economic Threshold new insecticides came into use. By the
ment is the [information- late 1940s, over 90 percent of acreage
Vernon M. Stern was working for the was treated with new materials, calcium
based] selection, integra- Westside Alfalfa Pest Control Associa- arsenate fell into disuse, and the Pest
tion in the San Joaquin Valley, Califor- Control Associations disappeared. The
tion, and implementation of nia, a big association of growers new materials worked well for less cost,
involving 10,285 acres when it formed so Vernon M. Stern went to graduate
pest control based on in 1945. The association was organized school with Ken Hagen, the first person
to help decide when to apply insecti- in charge of the Westside Association,
cides against the alfalfa butterfly. and Robert van den Bosch, who had
predicted economic, eco-
also been in charge of the Association
The alfalfa butterfly was not the most for a period of time. They worked with
logical and sociological
serious pest in alfalfa, but at times it Professor Ray F. Smith, who had
flared up and caused very serious loss. initially organized the Pest Control
consequences. Alfalfa growers had materials like Associations.
calcium arsenate at their disposal, and
they used these materials frequently, but It was not long before another insect,
at significant expense and with hard the spotted alfalfa aphid, came into the
Bottrell, 1979. work. The growers formed an associa- San Joaquin Valley, and by 1955 this
tion after entomologists showed that a aphid was resistant to pesticides. Smith
parasitoid controlled the butterfly most and his students (Stern, van den Bosch,
Council of Environmental
of the time, and that growers could and Hagen) imported an exotic parasi-
Quality make many fewer pesticide applications toid and studied native predatory
if they could estimate how well the insects. Both the parasitoid and the
parasitoid was controlling the butterfly predators were effective when not
larvae early in the crop growth cycle. destroyed by pesticides. They then
The association hired people to do the found insecticide materials and use
fieldwork and calculations and to give patterns that were relatively selective,
advice. The Westside Alfalfa Pest allowing the natural enemies to coexist
Control Association called this “super- with the valuable insecticide tools.
vised control.” The system was success-
ful, and soon the Westley Pest Control
Association and the Tracey Pest Control
Association formed in other parts of
California.
6
In 1959 Vernon M. Stern with his co- The concept of economic injury level is This “Integrated Control” concept,
authors Smith, van den Bosch, and shown in Figure 1. (Similar figures can published in 1959, was quickly ex-
Hagen, wrote a paper entitled “The be found in Stern’s paper, published panded to include all methods of
Integrated Control Concept,” (Stern et about 40 years ago, and similar concepts control. Thus, the Integrated Pest
al. 1959) in which they generalized were in use in cotton production almost Management concept was born at least
about integrating biological controls 75 years ago.) The figure shows that the 40 years ago. The concept was not born
and insecticides. To make this work, pest density is changing over time. At solely in California; similar develop-
they discussed monitoring, which low densities, the costs of the damage ments were occurring in Arkansas for
requires understanding of sampling and done by the pests are less than the costs cotton crops and in Canada for apples.
measurement of pest density. They of control, so it does not pay for the The concept arose from a philosophy
noted how pest populations fluctuate manager to add the control. At higher for which the objective is to manage a
over time. By monitoring density, they densities, however, it does pay to pest population below economically
argued, intervention with pesticides can control. Pest density is dynamic, and damaging levels, and in a way that is
be limited. This practice limits chemical managers can make short-term predic- practical for growers, by integrating
applications to those necessary times tions about what the density soon will multiple control options (see Perkins
and places where other tactics are not become. Managers usually want or need 1982 for a full historical perspective).
sufficient. to implement controls a short time IPM always has emphasized integration
before the Economic Injury Level is of control tactics, including pesticides,
So when does it become necessary to
reached. The Economic Threshold is the and monitoring to help determine time
intervene with pesticides? In many
density at which controls are added. It is and location for pesticide application.
respects, this is an economic decision. It
set so that, if controls are applied and
requires relating economics or commer-
are effective, the Economic Injury Level
cial goals of production to fluctuating
is not reached.
pest density. Simply defined, the time to
intervene with a pesticide is when the
Figure 1. Graph of economic injury level.
expected gain from using the pesticide
equals the costs associated with its use. n
o
The pest density at which the gain ati Pays to Control
ul
equals the cost is the Economic Injury p
o
P
Level. Thus, IPM relates pest popula- st
e
tion dynamics to commercial produc- P
tion goals.
Economic Injury Level
Does Not Pay to Control
Time
7
Today, there are many definitions of
Integrated Pest Management. They all
Problems With Pesticide Overuse recognize that many factors influence
pest dynamics, the way these dynamics
Over time, well-documented problems with sole or over-reliance on pesticides relate to production agriculture, and the
were discovered, and they still are being discovered. Use patterns, rates, timing, need to integrate multiple control
and other aspects of pesticide application are designed to minimize these strategies to manage pests over a long
problems. Pesticides are an important part of IPM, but not the only part, and time frame. IPM has foundations in
they require a good understanding to be used well. To ensure safety and conduct ecology—an understanding of the
business legally, it is essential to follow the label and to realize that changes to relationships of the pest and beneficial
labels occur frequently. Information for pesticide use is printed on the label, organisms within the biotic and abiotic
which is a legal document, and must remain with the pesticide container. Over- environment, and an understanding of
reliance on pesticides has been linked to problems, including: the distribution and abundance of these
organisms. IPM emphasizes creating
Resistance
conditions to preclude an organism
A change in the genetics of the pest population that impairs control in the field.
from reaching pest status, correctly
diagnosing and monitoring pest
Depletion of natural controls
pressure, and allowing natural mortality
Mortality of predators or parasitoids, which results in pests reaching even higher
factors to work as well as possible. IPM
densities (called resurgence) or species that were not previously pests reaching
is a philosophy, a way of thinking, an
pest status (called secondary outbreak).
attitude, which is adapted in practice to
Biomagnification meet economic realities of commercial
A build-up of the pesticide in fatty tissue, followed by an increase in the concen- production and modified as those
tration of the pesticide in organisms higher on the food chain, including realities or tools available for manage-
humans. ment change. A slightly modified
definition of IPM from the Council of
Environmental contamination
Environmental Quality is “. . . the
Unacceptable levels of the pesticide in groundwater, or in parts of the environ-
[information-based] selection, integra-
ment where pesticides were never meant to be.
tion, and implementation of pest
control based on predicted economic,
Species displacement
ecological and sociological conse-
A change in the biodiversity of an area caused by the effect of pesticides on
quences” (Botrell 1979).
species populations.
Endocrine disruption
Pesticide (and other) molecules acting upon the hormonal system of animals and
humans, affecting their development and immunological processes.
Human health danger
Direct or chronic toxicity to applicators or manufacturers; or to consumers
caused by unacceptable residues in food.
8
We easily can recognize an IPM Sanitation
An IPM Philosophy in philosophy in past and current manage- Here’s where mushroom growers can
Mushroom Production ment of pests in mushroom production. excel compared to many other agricul-
Management tactics are related to the tural production systems. The con-
IPM in mushroom production got its biology and ecology of pest species and trolled environment required for
start when sciarid fly populations began the relationship of the pests to yield, mushroom production allows for use of
to explode in the late seventies as the quality, or marketability of the crop. steam-pasteurization at the beginning
result of environmental changes brought There are a variety of tools in mush- and end of the crop, and sanitation of
on by the availability of air condition- room production that influence pest the growing rooms and equipment.
density and dynamics. These are not
ing. Before air conditioning, mush-
mutually exclusive, and are best inte- Biological control
rooms were produced only in the cool
grated so that one tactic helps another. Influencing the density or activity of
season. When crops were most suscep-
Many specific strategies with specific beneficial organisms, either through
tible to infestation, it was usually too
pests are discussed in the following cultural management or inundative
cold outside for wild populations to be
chapters, but it is worth pausing to release of additional beneficials into the
mobile, thus they were not able to enter
consider general terms that classify environment. Composting techniques
growing rooms. Also, the summer was a
control strategies and their relevance to influence biological control of fungi.
break in the growing cycle, and thus
mushroom production: Purposeful release of Pteromalid
also a break in the life cycle of sciarid
parasitoids on the composting wharf, or
flies within mushroom houses. Exclusion
entomopathogenic nematodes, are
Techniques that help prevent the pest
With the advent of air conditioning, examples of inundative release of
from reaching sites where it can create
there was no longer a break in the beneficials used in mushroom produc-
damage, such as sealing walls and
growing cycle, and sciarid flies were able tion.
cracks, to prevent entry of flies. Air
to breed uncontrollably. Despite the use
must be filtered before it enters the Chemical control
of chemical pesticides, the flies were
rooms. Any personnel or equipment Introducing chemicals to kill pests. The
winning the battle. By the summer of
entering a room must be clean and/or types of chemical tools available are
1978, fly populations in Chester and
sanitized. changing rapidly, and mushroom
Berks Counties in Pennsylvania were
growers have kept up with this change.
causing severe crop loss. Delaying access
Compare, for example, the types of
Techniques that slow the rate at which a
The Pennsylvania State University materials listed in Duffy 1981 with
pest reaches sites where it can create
began an interdepartmental Integrated Fleischer and Keil 1994. The 1970s
damage. Examples include maintaining
Pest Management program for the relied on broad-spectrum materials that
sanitation in the premises around
mushroom industry in early 1979. The had activity against a wide range of
mushroom growing houses and keeping
goal of the program was to reduce pest insects; the 1990s relied more on insect
grass cut and trees trimmed.
populations in an ecological way to growth regulators that have much
economically tolerable levels. The Cultural control greater selectivity and are more precise
program was to study four major Growing techniques that make the in what they target. This trend of
mushroom pests and diseases: the environment less supportive of pests greater selectivity can be expected to
sciarid fly, Lycoriella mali (Fitch); the and more supportive of beneficial continue. In an IPM program, these
phorid fly, Megaselia halterata (Wood); organisms. Composting is an excellent chemical tools are used in a way that is
Verticillium or dry bubble, Verticillium cultural IPM technique that strongly as compatible as possible with the other
malthousei; and bacterial blotch, influences fungal competitors and tools listed above, as well as with
Pseudomonas tolaasi. The most impor- pathogens. Instigation of shorter crop pesticide resistance management, which
tant components of the program were cycles is another IPM tool that strongly is discussed later in this chapter.
monitoring and identifying pests and influences pest population dynamics.
diseases. Mushroom pest adults as well Also important is maintaining an
as larvae and eggs were monitored and environment, including proper tem-
identified, and mushroom beds were perature and relative humidity, that
favors mushroom growth over its
sampled for diseases so their life cycles
competitors’.
could be studied.
9
Biorational materials peratures are monitored in both Phase I determines whether or not a pesticide or
Synthesized or extracted compounds and II. Though this is not a direct other management strategy is working
that are applied to manage pest densi- measure of populations, it is a good and calls attention to times when
ties, which often have much greater indicator of what is happening strategies are not working as expected.
selectivity upon target pests. Examples microbially; if the compost is cold near Sometimes pest pressure increases after a
used in mushroom production include the center of the pile—for example, pesticide is applied. Perhaps new
insect growth regulators, botanical 120°F (49°C)—it is an indication that immigrants arrived, or they arrived
extracts, and microbial metabolites. there are anaerobic organisms producing more quickly than anticipated, or a
the wrong type of compounds. This is stage of the pest that was not susceptible
Clearly, mushroom growers can and do
not a direct measure, but it is very to the pesticide developed into a stage
integrate multiple control strategies, as
important to the quality of the compost that is now a problem. Perhaps the pest
in an IPM program. Further, there is
and reminds the growers that the population is developing resistance to
the issue of relating decisions to pest
compost is alive, something that usually the pesticide currently in use. Clearly,
population dynamics: the Economic
gets very little attention. monitoring is an essential part of IPM.
Injury Level or Economic Threshold.
The level of pest density that can be Rules of thumb provide economic It is clear that the philosophy of IPM is
tolerated is both a management and injury levels for some pests. For ex- compatible with mushroom production.
subjective decision. Not every farm is ample, fly pressure may be low enough The Penn State Handbook for Commer-
the same. Both the gain achieved by the during the winter to not require cial Mushroom Growers (Wuest 1992) is
use of the material and the market price insecticides. An economic injury level of filled with valuable information about
of the mushrooms will vary among adult sciarid counts per day, as deter- identification, diagnosis, cultural
farms and through the season on a given mined on the Pennsylvania Mushroom controls, monitoring, and management.
farm. Economic goals also vary: some Fly Monitor, is shown in Figure 3. In A basic premise is that no single control
farms may emphasize quality factors for this example, there is virtually no method will be successful over time.
select markets, others may emphasize tolerance for flies before, and 3 days IPM strives to integrate control tactics,
volume. after, spawning. After spawning, the which essentially are different types of
threshold rises to ten flies per strip per technologies. IPM will use cultural and
In addition, other biological factors
day. The threshold rises again slightly biological tactics to the best degree
should influence management decisions
soon after casing and more dramatically possible and then include pesticides as
about the tolerable levels of a pest. For
at pinning. The idea is that flies arriving needed. Control technologies discussed
example, if sciarid flies are aiding
early will cause greater damage and are a in this publication include Diagnosis
transmission of a pathogen or mites,
sign of much greater problems that will and Monitoring, Exclusion (Chapter
then the tolerable pest density of flies
occur before the crop is complete, but II.A.1), Cultural Controls (Chapter
should drop dramatically. The tolerable
flies arriving later will have less opportu- II.A.2), Biological Controls (Chapter
pest density is also different at different
nity to cause damage because they have II.A.3), and Chemical Controls (Chap-
times in the crop growth cycle. This
less time to complete another life cycle. ter II.A.4).
tolerable pest density is best developed
This specific threshold may not be the
through experience and in consultation Technologies change over time. What
best for your facility, as the cropping
with others who have had growing mushroom growers may not realize is
cycle and other factors may not be
experience. that they can be among the best at
exactly the same, but it does demon-
adapting to these changes. Changes in
strate that thresholds can influence
In an IPM philosophy, growers do not
technology are true for cultural tech-
management and suggests that thresh-
strive to remove every individual pest at
nologies as well as for biological and
olds can be adapted to your farm.
every moment. Rather, management
pesticide technologies. Consider the
involves monitoring pest pressure and
Monitoring is essential for defining change in growing technology, varieties,
using that information to influence
when and where to invest pest manage- and cropping cycles over the last 20
management. In mushrooms, monitor-
ment inputs. The first step in monitor- years. Because the technologies keep
ing includes fly monitors and record
ing is identifying the pest and diagnos- changing, the IPM program also must
sheets (Figure 2), nuisance fly monitors
ing the problem. Monitoring also is adapt, change, and improve. It is clear
on the composting wharf, and routine
essential for evaluation and follow-up. It that the IPM philosophy of integrating
inspection of beds for diseases. Tem-
10