Motherhood in the Context of Human Trafficking and Sexual Exploitation: Studies on Nigerian and Romanian Women

211 Pages·2020·2.622 MB·English

by  Rafaela Pascoal

Rafaela Pascoal
Motherhood
in the Context
of Human
Trafficking and
Sexual Exploitation
Studies on Nigerian and Romanian
Women
fi
Motherhood in the Context of Human Traf cking
and Sexual Exploitation
Rafaela Pascoal
Motherhood in the Context
fi
of Human Traf cking and
Sexual Exploitation
Studies on Nigerian and Romanian Women
RafaelaPascoal
DepartmentofCulturesandSocieties
UniversityofPalermo
Palermo,Italy
ISBN978-3-030-50848-7 ISBN978-3-030-50849-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50849-4
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À Maria e ao Manuel, que abraçaram a
invulnerabilidade eterna.
Acknowledgement
First of all, I owe a great debt of gratitude to Professor Ignazia Bartholini who
patiently has shared with me her knowledge in the last few years. Furthermore, I
wouldliketoacknowledgetheinputofmycolleaguesGiorgiaandLetiziaPalumbo,
theexchangeofideaswithFrancescoandthepatienceofEllie.Finally,thisbookis
alsoanoutcomeofsocialinteraction;thus,Iamthankfultoallthepeople,especially
myfamilyandfriends,whohaveenrichedmylifeexperiences.
vii
Contents
1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Methodology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 TheInternationalLegalFrameworkonHumanTrafficking. . . . . 13
2.1 The(in)DefinitionofSexualExploitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 LackofLegislationinSexWork.SexualExploitation
andProstitution:TheGreyAreas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3 TheRelevanceoftheMeans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3 SexualExploitationfromOriginCountriestoDestination
Countries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1 VulnerableFactorsfromtheOriginCountries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 IstheJourneyaFactorofVulnerability?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.1 TheLibyanRoute. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.3 NigerianMotherhoodandtheTravelRoute.. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . 49
3.3.1 TheRouteThroughLibya. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3.2 TheRouteThroughMorocco. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 SexualExploitationintheDestinationCountry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.1 TheMainCoercionInstruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.1.1 TheOathandtheLinkwithReligion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.1.2 TheUseofRelationsofProximity.. . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . 76
4.2 TheUseoftheNigerianMotherhoodasaCoerciveInstrument. . . 81
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5 MotherhoodofNigerianandRomanianWomeninSexual
Exploitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.1 TheRoleofMotherhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 MotherhoodDuringSexualExploitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
ix
x Contents
5.2.1 TheMotherhoodoftheNigerianWomen. . . . . . . . . . . . 98
5.2.2 TransnationalMotherhood. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.2.3 CantheChildrenofHumanTraffickingVictimsBeAlso
ConsideredaVictim?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3 UnwantedPregnanciesandtheInfluenceoftheState. . . . . . . . . 127
5.3.1 Abortions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.3.2 Adoptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.3.3 TheRoleoftheState. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
6 ProtectionandVictim’sAssistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.1 VulnerabilityAftertheDenounceandSecuredRights. . . . . . . . 149
6.2 TheItalianLegislationontheProtectionofHumanTrafficking
Victims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.2.1 TheItalianLegalFrameworkRegardingtheProtection
oftheVictims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.2.2 ALegislativeAnalysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2.3 TheItalianReferralMechanism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.3 TheOverlapbetweenAsylumSeekerandHumanTrafficking
Victims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.3.1 DifficultiesandBestPracticesontheAsylum-Seeking
SystemforHumanTraffickingVictims. . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.3.2 TheOutcasts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.3.3 TheFullProtectionPackageUnderArt.18. . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.3.4 Non-accompaniedMinorsandHumanTrafficking
Victims. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.4 TheProtectionoftheRomanianWomen. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 185
6.5 TheProtectionoftheVictimswithChildren. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.6 TheReunificationofFamilyAfterTrafficking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Acronyms
ANITP Agenţia Naţională Împotriva Traficului de Persoane—Romanian
NationalAgencyAgainstHumanTrafficking
APOV AbuseofpositionofVulnerability
CARA Centro di Accoglienza per Richiedenti Asilo—Reception Center for
AsylumSeekers
CAS CentrodiAccoglienzaStraordinaria—TemporaryReceptionCenter[for
asylumseekers]
CIE CenterforIdentificationandExpulsion
ENI EuropeoNonIscritto—non-registeredEuropean[citizen]
EU EuropeanUnion
ILO InternationalLabourOrganization
IOM InternationalOrganizationforMigration
OHCHR OfficeoftheUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforHumanRights
OSCE OrganizationforSecurityandCo-operationinEurope
NGO Non-governmentalorganization
THB Traffickinginhumanbeings
VoT Victimofhumantrafficking
UNICEF UnitedNationsChildren’sFund
UNODC UnitedNationsOfficeonDrugsandCrime
xi
Chapter 1
Introduction
In the international legal framework, the phenomenon of human trafficking was
originally focused solely on sexually exploited women and children.1 Throughout
theyears,theinternationallegaldefinitionofhumantrafficking2hasbeenenlarged,
by focusing on the individual, rather than simply on gender or age categories.
However, the international legal framework has always encouraged the adoption
of a gender mainstream,3 based on the global data on human trafficking.
1The International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Trafficwas concluded on
18May1904andcameintoforceon18July1905,ratifiedbyatotalof26statesthathadcolonies:
His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British
DominionsbeyondtheSeas,EmperorofIndia;HisMajestytheGermanEmperor,KingofPrussia,
inthenameoftheGermanEmpire;HisMajestytheKingoftheBelgians;HisMajestytheKingof
Denmark;HisMajestytheKingofSpain;thePresidentoftheFrenchRepublic;HisMajestythe
KingofItaly;HerMajestytheQueenoftheNetherlands;HisMajestytheKingofPortugalandof
theAlgarves;HisMajestytheEmperorofalltheRussias;HisMajestytheKingofSwedenand
Norway;andtheSwissFederalCouncil.FiveyearsafterthetreatywasrenegotiatedinParisand
concludedon4May1910.
2ThedefinitionofHumanTraffickingisexpressedbyArt.3,commaa)TheadoptionoftheUnited
Nations,ProtocoltoPrevent,SuppressandPunishTraffickinginPersonsEspeciallyWomenand
Children,supplementingtheUnitedNationsConventionagainstTransnationalOrganisedCrime:
“‘Traffickinginpersons’shall‘mean’therecruitment,transportation,transfer,harbouringorreceipt
ofpersons,by‘means’ofthreatoruseofforceorotherformsofcoercion,ofabduction,offraud,of
deception,oftheabuseofpowerorofapositionofvulnerabilityorofthegivingorreceivingof
paymentsorbenefitstoachievetheconsentofapersonhavingcontroloveranotherperson,forthe
purposeofexploitation.Exploitationshallinclude,ataminimum,theexploitationoftheprostitu-
tionofothersorotherformsofsexualexploitation,forcedlabourorservices,slaveryorpractices
similartoslavery,servitudeortheremovaloforgans.”
3The Council of Europe Convention on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings [CETS
N.197]wasadoptedbytheCommitteeofMinisterson3May2005andopenedforsignaturein
Warsawon16May2005,ontheoccasionofthethirdSummitofHeadsofStateandGovernmentof
theCouncilofEuropeanmemberstates;Directive2011/36/EUoftheEuropeanParliamentandof
the Council of 5 April 2011 on preventing and combating trafficking in human beings and
protectingitsvictims.
©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2020 1
R.Pascoal,MotherhoodintheContextofHumanTraffickingandSexual
Exploitation,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-50849-4_1