molecular and cellular levels organization of living things

180 Pages·2017·2.89 MB·English

MINISTRY OF THE PUBLIC HEALTH OF UKRAINE
ZAPOROZHYE STATE MEDICAL UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF MEDICAL BIOLOGY

Electronic edition

Prykhodko A.B., Popovich A.P., Yemets T.I., Maleeva A.Y.
MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR
LEVELS ORGANIZATION OF LIVING THINGS

ZAPOROZHYE – 2017
The ‘‘Text-Book” pays attention to the molecular and cellular levels
organization and to some problems of Genetics. It deals with topics mentioned
in the Academic Curriculum for the Medical University. The questions of each
topic act as test-pieces and help to fix the knowledge acquired. The book will
contribute to examination success while engendering a genuine love of biology
which will stimulate the students to delve further and deeper into the subject.
This textbook is composed by:
A.B.Prikhodko Head of Department of Medical Biology, Doctor of
Biological Sciences
A.P.Popovich Associate Professor of the Department of Medical Biology
T.I.Yemets Associate Professor of the Department of Medical Biology
A.Y. Maleeva Assistant of the Department of Medical Biology
R e v i e w e r s :
Head of Biological Chemistry and Laboratory Diagnosis Department
Zaporozhye State Medical University, Doctor of Sciences Alexandrova E.V.
P r o f e s s o r , D o c t o r o f S c i e n c e s A b r a m o v A . V . , D e p a r t m e n t o f P a t h .
Physiology,
Zaporozhye State Medical University.
M o l e c u l a r a n d c e l l u l a r l e v e l s o r g a n i z a t i o n o f l i v i n g t h i n g s / A . B . P r y k h o d k o , A .
P . P o p o v i c h , T . I . Y e m e t s . A . Y . M a l e e v a . - Z a p o r o z h y e , 2 0 1 7 . - 1 8 0 с .
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Table of contents
Preface ........................................................................................................... 4
ACADEMIC CURRICULUM ...................................................................... 5
SUB MODULE 1. Molecular and cellular organization of the life. ............. 7
Topic 1.Optical systems in biological researches. ........................................ 7
Topic 2. Cell structure ................................................................................. 10
Topic 3. Cell Membranes. Movement through the Membrane................... 22
Topic 4. Chemical Nature of Genetic Material. Gene structure ................. 31
Topic 5. Gene Expression. Protein synthesis. ............................................. 44
Topic 6. Chromosomes. Human karyotype. Cell cycle .............................. 53
Topic 7. Reproduction is the main characteristic of living things. Meiosis 67
Topic 8. Gametogenesis. Sex cells ............................................................. 78
Topic 9. Sub module. 1“Cell – Reproduction” ........................................... 88
SUB MODULE 2 Genetics. ....................................................................... 88
Topic 10. Genetics. Mendel's Laws ............................................................. 88
Topic 11. Gene’s interactions. Multiple alleles. ......................................... 99
Topic 12. Linkage. Inheritance of Sex. ..................................................... 113
Topic 13. Genetic change and variation ................................................... 127
SUB MODULE 3. Human genetics .......................................................... 142
Topic 14. Pedigree analysis. Study of Twins ............................................ 142
Topic 15. Molecular pathology. DNA analysis ........................................ 152
Topic 16. Cytogenetical method ............................................................... 161
Topic 17. Population –statistical method. Genetic counseling. ................ 169
Topic 18. Practical skills ........................................................................... 175
Topic 19. Module I “Cell – Genetics ........................................................ 176
Checklist for individual work ................................................................... 176
Recommended reading .............................................................................. 177

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Preface
Textbook “Molecular and cellular levels organization of living things ’’ was
prepared by a team of teachers Department of Medical Biology, Parasitology
and Genetics, Medical University Zaporozhye, which has long engaged in
biology teaching medical students.
Textbook prepared in accordance with the Program of discipline "Medical
Biology" and curriculum training educational qualification level "specialist"
qualifications "doctor" specialties "Medicine", "Pediatrics."
The manual authors attempted to concentrate the whole complex of
theoretical knowledge on the subject that would become the foundation medical
students in the study of histology, cytology and embryology, biological and
bioorganic chemistry, microbiology, physiology, and other disciplines, as well
as learning practical skills in molecular biology, cytology and genetics.
The manual includes a methodical 18 workshops (practical skills and sub
modules) and module 1. In each subject class shows its relevance and feasibility
study paid special attention to the formation of students' skills in mastering the
material issues.

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ACADEMIC CURRICULUM
of practical classes
MODULE 1. MOLECULAR AND CELLULAR
LEVELS ORGANIZATION OF LIVING THINGS
Hours of
TOPICS
## study
Sub module 1. Molecular and cellular
18
organization of the life.
1. Optical instruments in biological researches. 2
2. Cell structure. Pro- and eukaryotes. 2
3. Cell membranes. Movement in and out of cell. 2
Molecular basis of hereditary. Nucleic acids. Genetic
2
4. code. Structure of genes.
5. Flow of information in the cell. Gene expression. 2
Chromosome structure. Human karyotype. Cell
2
6. cycle. Cell division.
7. Reproduction as a property of living things. Meiosis. 2
8. 8
Gametogenesis. Sex cells. Fertilization. 2
.
9. 9
Test of Sub module I. 2
.
Sub module 2. Heredity and variation. 8

10. 1 Genetics. Mendel's Laws 2
11. 1 Gene’s interactions. Multiple alleles. 2
12. 1L inkage Inheritance of Sex. 2
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13. 1G enetic change and variation. Types of variations. 2
Sub module 3. Methods of the human
12
genetics. Genetic disorders.
14. Human genetics. Pedigree analysis. Study of Twins. 2
Molecular pathology. Biochemical method and DNA
15. 2
analysis.
16. Chromosomal disorders. Cytogenetic method. 2
17. Population-statistic method. Genetic counseling. 2
18. Practical skills of sub modules 2 and 3 2
19. Test of Module I. 2

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SUB MODULE 1. Molecular and cellular organization of the
life.
Topic 1.Optical systems in biological researches
Key concepts:
Microscopic techniques significance in the studying biological objects;
Light microscope structure, main principles of working with it.
Preparing wet-mount slides.
If almost any structure from a plant or an animal is examined, it will be
seen to consist of more or less distinct units - cell, which is too small to be seen
with the naked eye. So they must be magnified in order to get any idea about
their structure. This may be achieved by using the microscope. Tools play a
major role in science. This means that many great discoveries lie in wait for the
tools needed to make them.
For laboratory examinations available light microscope that produce
magnified images by focusing visible light rays. Electron microscopes produce
magnified images by focusing beams of electrons.
Structure of microscope and application of it parts.
Eyepiece − contains a magnifying lens.
Arm − supports the body's tube.
Stage − supports the slide being observed.
Opening of the stage − permits light to pass up to the eyepiece.
Fine adjustment knob − moves the body tube slightly to sharpen the image.
Coarse adjustment knob − moves the body tube to focus the image.
Base − supports the microscope.
Illuminator − produces light or reflects light up toward the eyepiece.
Condenser and diaphragm − regulates the amount of light passing toward the
eyepiece.
Stage clips − hold the slide in the place.
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Low-power objective − provides a magnification of 10 X and is the shortest
objective.
High-power objective − provides a magnification of 40 X and is the longest
objective.
Nosepiece − holds the objectives and can be rotated to change the
magnification.
Body tube − maintains the proper distance between the eyepiece and the
objective.

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How to work with a microscope?
Working with the microscope use the following procedures:
Carry the microscope by placing one hand beneath the base and grasping
the arm of the microscope with the other hand.
Gently place the microscope on the lab table with the arm facing you.
Raise the body tube by turning the coarse adjustment knob until the
objective lens is about 2 cm above the opening of the stage.
Rotate the nosepiece so that the low power objective is directly in line with
the body tube.
Look through the eyepiece and switch on the lamp or adjust the mirror so
that a circle of light can be seen. This is the field of view.
Place a prepared slide on the stage so that the specimen is over the center of
the opening.
Look at the microscope from the side. Carefully turn the coarse adjustment
knob to lower the body tube until the low-power objective almost touches the
slide. Do not allow the objective to touch the slide.
Look through the eyepiece and observe the specimen. Focus the image as
best you can with the coarse adjustment knob. Then use the fine-adjustment
knob to focus the image more sharply.
Adjust the lever of the diaphragm to allow the right amount of light to
enter.
After every use, remove the slide. Return the low-power objective into
place in line with the body tube.
Practice:
Assignment 1. Preparing wet-mount slides.
Obtain a clean microscope slide and a cover slip. A cover slip is very thin,
permitting the objective lens to be lowered very close to the specimen.
Place the specimen in the middle of the microscope side. The specimen
must be thin enough for light to pass through it.
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Using a dropper pipette, place a drop of water on the specimen.
Lower one edge of the cover slip so that it touches the side of the drop of
0
water at about a 45 angle. Slowly lover the cover slip over the specimen and
water. Try not to trap any air bubbles under the cover slip.
Remove any excess water at the edge of the cover slip with a paper towel.
If the specimen begins to dry out, add a drop of water at the edge of the cover
slip.
a) Slide 1. Cotton (wool) fibers.
Take a small piece of the cotton fiber and put it in the center of glass slide.
Add a drop of water and cover it with a cover slip. Examine you slide under
low-power objective of the microscope and sketch the specimen.
b) Slide 2. Structure of the plant cell.
Using the same method prepare slide of Onion cells. Examine your slide
under low-power and high power objectives of microscope. Sketch 2-3 cells and
label any structures you recognize.
Literature:
Lazarev K.L. "Medical biology" Simferopol, 2003.
T.V. Bihunyak “Medical Biology”. – Ternopil, 2010.

Topic 2. Cell structure
Key concepts:
What is a cell?
The main statements of the cell theory.
Basic cell structure: organelles, inclusions.
What are the characteristics of prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
How are plant and animal cells similar in structure? How are they
different?
Cellular organization.
In 1665, Robert Hooke, using a compound microscope discovered that cork
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