Modern Nuclear Chemistry

737 Pages·2017·20.355 MB·English

by  Walter D. Loveland, David J. Morrissey, Glenn T. Seaborg

Modern Nuclear Chemistry
SecondEdition
WalterD.Loveland
OregonStateUniversity
DavidJ.Morrissey
MichiganStateUniversity
GlennT.Seaborg
UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley
Copyright©2017byJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.Allrightsreserved.
PublishedbyJohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,Hoboken,NewJersey.
PublishedsimultaneouslyinCanada.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Names:Loveland,WalterD.|Morrissey,DavidJ.|Seaborg,GlennT.(Glenn
Theodore),1912–1999.
Title:Modernnuclearchemistry/WalterD.Loveland,DavidJ.Morrissey,GlennT.Seaborg.
Description:Secondedition.|Hoboken,NJ:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,2017.|
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
Identifiers:LCCN2016045901|ISBN9780470906736(cloth)|ISBN9781119328483(epub)
Subjects:LCSH:Nuclearchemistry–Textbooks.|Chemistry,Physicaland
theoretical–Textbooks.
Classification:LCCQD601.3.L682017|DDC541/.38–dc23
LCrecordavailableathttps://lccn.loc.gov/2016045901
CoverImage:Courtesyoftheauthor
CoverDesign:Wiley
Setin10/12ptWarnockbySPiGlobal,Pondicherry,India
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
Contents
PrefacetotheSecondEdition xv
PrefacetotheFirstEdition xvii
1 IntroductoryConcepts 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 TheExcitementandRelevanceofNuclearChemistry 2
1.3 TheAtom 3
1.4 AtomicProcesses 4
1.4.1 Ionization 5
1.4.2 X-RayEmission 5
1.5 TheNucleus:Nomenclature 7
1.6 PropertiesoftheNucleus 8
1.7 SurveyofNuclearDecayTypes 9
1.8 ModernPhysicalConceptsNeededinNuclearChemistry 12
1.8.1 ElementaryMechanics 13
1.8.2 RelativisticMechanics 14
1.8.3 deBroglieWavelength:Wave–ParticleDuality 16
1.8.4 HeisenbergUncertaintyPrinciple 18
1.8.5 UnitsandConversionFactors 19
Problems 19
Bibliography 21
2 NuclearProperties 25
2.1 NuclearMasses 25
2.2 Terminology 28
2.3 BindingEnergyPerNucleon 29
2.4 SeparationEnergySystematics 31
2.5 AbundanceSystematics 32
2.6 SemiempiricalMassEquation 33
2.7 NuclearSizesandShapes 39
2.8 QuantumMechanicalProperties 43
2.8.1 NuclearAngularMomentum 43
2.9 ElectricandMagneticMoments 45
2.9.1 MagneticDipoleMoment 45
2.9.2 ElectricQuadrupoleMoment 48
Problems 51
Bibliography 55
3 RadioactiveDecayKinetics 57
3.1 BasicDecayEquations 57
3.2 MixtureofTwoIndependentlyDecayingRadionuclides 65
3.3 RadioactiveDecayEquilibrium 66
3.4 BranchingDecay 76
3.5 RadiationDosage 77
3.6 NaturalRadioactivity 79
3.6.1 GeneralInformation 79
3.6.2 PrimordialNucleiandtheUraniumDecaySeries 79
3.6.3 CosmogenicNuclei 81
3.6.4 AnthropogenicNuclei 83
3.6.5 HealthEffectsofNaturalRadiation 83
3.7 RadionuclideDating 84
Problems 90
Bibliography 92
4 NuclearMedicine 93
4.1 Introduction 93
4.2 Radiopharmaceuticals 94
4.3 Imaging 96
4.4 99Tcm 98
4.5 PET 101
4.6 OtherImagingTechniques 103
4.7 SomeRandomObservationsaboutthePhysicsofImaging 104
4.8 Therapy 108
Problems 110
Bibliography 112
5 ParticlePhysicsandtheNuclearForce 113
5.1 ParticlePhysics 113
5.2 TheNuclearForce 117
5.3 CharacteristicsoftheStrongForce 119
5.4 ChargeIndependenceofNuclearForces 120
Problems 124
Bibliography 124
6 NuclearStructure 125
6.1 Introduction 125
6.2 NuclearPotentials 127
6.3 SchematicShellModel 129
6.4 IndependentParticleModel 141
6.5 CollectiveModel 143
6.6 NilssonModel 149
6.7 FermiGasModel 152
Problems 161
Bibliography 164
7 𝛂-Decay 167
7.1 Introduction 167
7.2 EnergeticsofαDecay 169
7.3 TheoryofαDecay 173
7.4 HindranceFactors 182
7.5 HeavyParticleRadioactivity 183
7.6 ProtonRadioactivity 185
Problems 186
Bibliography 188
8 𝛃-Decay 191
8.1 Introduction 191
8.2 NeutrinoHypothesis 192
8.3 DerivationoftheSpectralShape 196
8.4 KuriePlots 199
8.5 βDecayRateConstant 200
8.6 ElectronCaptureDecay 206
8.7 ParityNonconservation 207
8.8 NeutrinosAgain 208
8.9 β-DelayedRadioactivities 209
8.10 DoubleβDecay 211
Problems 213
Bibliography 214
9 𝛄-RayDecay 217
9.1 Introduction 217
9.2 Energeticsofγ-RayDecay 218
9.3 ClassificationofDecayTypes 220
9.4 ElectromagneticTransitionRates 223
9.5 InternalConversion 229
9.6 AngularCorrelations 232
9.7 MössbauerEffect 238
Problems 244
Bibliography 245
10 NuclearReactions 247
10.1 Introduction 247
10.2 EnergeticsofNuclearReactions 248
10.3 ReactionTypesandMechanisms 252
10.4 NuclearReactionCrossSections 253
10.5 ReactionObservables 264
10.6 RutherfordScattering 264
10.7 Elastic(Diffractive)Scattering 268
10.8 AsideontheOpticalModel 270
10.9 DirectReactions 271
10.10 CompoundNuclearReactions 273
10.11 PhotonuclearReactions 279
10.12 Heavy-IonReactions 281
10.12.1 CoulombExcitation 284
10.12.2 ElasticScattering 284
10.12.3 FusionReactions 284
10.12.4 IncompleteFusion 288
10.12.5 Deep-InelasticScattering 289
10.13 High-EnergyNuclearReactions 291
10.13.1 Spallation/FragmentationReactions 291
10.13.2 ReactionsInducedbyRadioactiveProjectiles 295
10.13.3 Multifragmentation 296
10.13.4 Quark–GluonPlasma 298
Problems 298
Bibliography 302
11 Fission 305
11.1 Introduction 305
11.2 ProbabilityofFission 308
11.2.1 LiquidDropModel 308
11.2.2 ShellCorrections 310
11.2.3 SpontaneousFission 312
11.2.4 SpontaneouslyFissioningIsomers 315
11.2.5 TheTransitionNucleus 316
11.3 DynamicalPropertiesofFissionFragments 323
11.4 FissionProductDistributions 327
11.4.1 TotalKineticEnergy(TKE)Release 327
11.4.2 FissionProductMassDistribution 327
11.4.3 FissionProductChargeDistributions 330
11.5 ExcitationEnergyofFissionFragments 334
Problems 337
Bibliography 338
12 NuclearAstrophysics 339
12.1 Introduction 339
12.2 ElementalandIsotopicAbundances 340
12.3 PrimordialNucleosynthesis 343
12.3.1 StellarEvolution 347
12.4 ThermonuclearReactionRates 351
12.5 StellarNucleosynthesis 353
12.5.1 Introduction 353
12.5.2 HydrogenBurning 353
12.5.3 HeliumBurning 357
12.5.4 SynthesisofNucleiwithA<60 359
12.5.5 SynthesisofNucleiwithA>60 360
12.6 SolarNeutrinoProblem 366
12.6.1 Introduction 366
12.6.2 ExpectedSolarNeutrinoSources,Energies,andFluxes 367
12.6.3 DetectionofSolarNeutrinos 369
12.6.4 TheSolarNeutrinoProblem 371
12.6.5 SolutiontotheProblem:NeutrinoOscillations 371
12.7 SynthesisofLi,Be,andB 373
Problems 375
Bibliography 376
13 ReactorsandAccelerators 379
13.1 Introduction 379
13.2 NuclearReactors 380
13.2.1 Neutron-InducedReaction 380
13.2.2 Neutron-InducedFission 383
13.2.3 NeutronInventory 384
13.2.4 LightWaterReactors 386
13.2.5 TheOkloPhenomenon 391
13.3 NeutronSources 392
13.4 NeutronGenerators 392
13.5 Accelerators 393
13.5.1 IonSources 394
13.5.2 ElectrostaticMachines 396
13.5.3 LinearAccelerators 400
13.5.4 Cyclotrons,Synchrotrons,andRings 403
13.6 Charged-ParticleBeamTransportandAnalysis 410
13.7 RadioactiveIonBeams 415
13.8 NuclearWeapons 421
Problems 425
Bibliography 427
14 TheTransuraniumElements 429
14.1 Introduction 429
14.2 LimitsofStability 429
14.3 ElementSynthesis 434
14.4 HistoryofTransuraniumElementDiscovery 437
14.5 SuperheavyElements 449
14.6 ChemistryoftheTransuraniumElements 453
14.7 EnvironmentalChemistryoftheTransuraniumElements 461
Problems 468
Bibliography 469
15 NuclearReactorChemistry 473
15.1 Introduction 473
15.2 FissionProductChemistry 475
15.3 RadiochemistryofUranium 478
15.3.1 UraniumIsotopes 478
15.3.2 MetallicUranium 478
15.3.3 UraniumCompounds 478
15.3.4 UraniumSolutionChemistry 479
15.4 TheNuclearFuelCycle:TheFrontEnd 480
15.4.1 MiningandMilling 481
15.4.2 RefiningandChemicalConversion 483
15.4.3 IsotopicEnhancement 484
15.4.4 FuelFabrication 487
15.5 TheNuclearFuelCycle:TheBackEnd 488
15.5.1 PropertiesofSpentFuel 488
15.5.2 FuelReprocessing 490
15.6 RadioactiveWasteDisposal 493
15.6.1 ClassificationsofRadioactiveWaste 493
15.6.2 WasteAmountsandAssociatedHazards 494
15.6.3 StorageandDisposalofNuclearWaste 496
15.6.4 SpentNuclearFuel 497
15.6.5 HLW 498
15.6.6 TransuranicWaste 499
15.6.7 Low-LevelWaste 499
15.6.8 MillTailings 500
15.6.9 PartitioningofWaste 500
15.6.10 TransmutationofWaste 501
15.7 ChemistryofOperatingReactors 504
15.7.1 RadiationChemistryofCoolants 504
15.7.2 Corrosion 505
15.7.3 CoolantActivities 505
Problems 506
Bibliography 507
16 InteractionofRadiationwithMatter 509
16.1 Introduction 509
16.2 HeavyChargedParticles 512
16.2.1 StoppingPower 512
16.2.2 Range 521
16.3 Electrons 526
16.4 ElectromagneticRadiation 532
16.4.1 PhotoelectricEffect 534
16.4.2 ComptonScattering 536
16.4.3 PairProduction 537
16.5 Neutrons 540
16.6 RadiationExposureandDosimetry 544
Problems 548
Bibliography 550
17 RadiationDetectors 553
17.1 Introduction 553
17.1.1 GasIonization 554
17.1.2 IonizationinaSolid(SemiconductorDetectors) 554
17.1.3 SolidScintillators 555
17.1.4 LiquidScintillators 555
17.1.5 NuclearEmulsions 555
17.2 DetectorsBasedonCollectingIonization 556
17.2.1 GasIonizationDetectors 557
17.2.2 SemiconductorDetectors(SolidStateIonizationChambers) 567
17.3 ScintillationDetectors 578
17.4 NuclearTrackDetectors 584
17.5 NeutronDetectors 585
17.6 NuclearElectronicsandDataCollection 587
17.7 NuclearStatistics 589
17.7.1 DistributionsofDataandUncertainty 591
17.7.2 RejectionofAbnormalData 597
17.7.3 SettingUpperLimitsWhenNoCountsAreObserved 598
Problems 599
Bibliography 600
18 NuclearAnalyticalMethods 603
18.1 Introduction 603
18.2 ActivationAnalysis 603
18.2.1 BasicDescriptionoftheMethod 603
18.2.2 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofActivationAnalysis 605
18.2.3 PracticalConsiderationsinActivationAnalysis 607
18.2.4 ApplicationsofActivationAnalysis 611
18.3 PIXE 612
18.4 RutherfordBackscattering 615
18.5 AcceleratorMassSpectrometry(AMS) 619
18.6 OtherMassSpectrometricTechniques 620
Problems 621
Bibliography 623
19 RadiochemicalTechniques 625
19.1 Introduction 625
19.2 UniqueAspectsofRadiochemistry 626
19.3 AvailabilityofRadioactiveMaterial 630
19.4 Targetry 632
19.5 MeasuringBeamIntensityandFluxes 637
19.6 Recoils,EvaporationResidues,andHeavyResidues 639
19.7 RadiochemicalSeparationTechniques 644
19.7.1 Precipitation 644
19.7.2 SolventExtraction 645
19.7.3 IonExchange 648
19.7.4 ExtractionChromatography 650
19.7.5 RapidRadiochemicalSeparations 652
19.8 Low-LevelMeasurementTechniques 653
19.8.1 Blanks 654
19.8.2 Low-LevelCounting:GeneralPrinciples 654
19.8.3 Low-LevelCounting:Details 655
19.8.4 LimitsofDetection 658
Problems 659
Bibliography 660
20 NuclearForensics 663
20.1 Introduction 663
20.1.1 BasicPrinciplesofForensicAnalysis 666
20.2 Chronometry 670
20.3 NuclearWeaponsandTheirDebris 672
20.3.1 RDDorDirtyBombs 672
20.3.2 NuclearExplosions 674
20.4 DeducingSourcesandRoutesofTransmission 678
Problems 680
Bibliography 681