Modern Geology

284 Pages·13.453 MB·English

by  N.A. Yasamanov

SCIENCE
FOR EVERYONE
N.A.YASAMANOV
MODE
MIR

Science
for Everyone
H.A. flcaMaHOB
CoBpeMeHHaa reojionin
H3AaTejii,cTBO «Henpa» Mociuia
N.A. Yasamanov
Modern Geology
Translated from the Russian
by V.F. Agranat
Mir
Publishers
Moscow
First published 1990
Revised from the 1987 Russian edition
Ha amjiuucKOM ji3btKe
Printed in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
ISBN 5-03-001381-4 © H3AaTejn>CTB0 «HeApa»,
1987
© English translation,
V.F. Agranat, 1990
Preface
It is a great pleasure for me to present this
book to an English-speaking reader. Don’t
be distressed with the name of this book.
It is devoted not to a strict scientific anal­
ysis of modern geological problems, but
to a popular presentation of current prin­
cipal trends and the latest advances in geo­
science.
Since long ago geology in the USSR has
not been taught at middle school as a dis­
cipline in its own right. Instead, the basic
geological notions are distributed over other
courses of physical geography. Unfortunate­
ly, this doesn’t generate an integral view
about such geology, a major scientific dis­
cipline, of great world-outlook importance.
This book just tries to fill in this gap.
It turns out, however, that the problems
discussed in it extend far beyond the frame­
work of the middle school-taught phys­
ical geography course and are of interest
to the students of technical schools studying
geology and mining as their principal disci­
plines. It seems to me that this book could
6 Preface
be of importance for specialists in different
fields of knowledge as an introductory
course.
We didn’t deal with the history of geolog­
ical knowledge, that is, didn’t go along a
traditional way. The book shows the role
of geoscience and applied geology in the
life of modern society, particularly in laying
out and constructing settlements; it also
shows the effects of diverse geological
processes on the Earth’s surface. “Modern
geology” begins and ends with the character­
istics of geological processes, their role in
human life, and the importance of geology
for environmental protection. As a result,
a new field of geoscience—ecogeology—can
be outlined.
Naturally, it is impossible in one book to
describe all geological aspects. Hence I
have confined myself to the origin and evo­
lution of the Earth, including its interior;
periodization of geological events; volca­
nic phenomena; endogenous and exogenous
processes; paleontology; marine geology;
tectonics and the history of the atmosphere
and climate. In some places, I was probably
subjective to some extent, but I hope that
the reader will not be sceptical to the whole
book and to its author, who merely ex­
pressed his vision of modern geological prob­
lems.
Prof. N.A. Yasamanov
Contents
Preface 5
Introduction 9
Geology As the Fundamental Science
of the Earth 15
Geology and Humans 15
Geological Processes 19
Geology and Cities 23
The Planet Earth 27
The Shape and Size of the Earth 33
Shells of the Earth 36
The Internal Structure of the Earth 44
The Origin of the Earth and Evolu­
tion of Its Interior 52
The Birth of the Earth 52
Gravitational Differentiation 56
The Origin of the Earth’s Crust 60
The Time Scale and History of the
Earth 64
The Age of Rocks and Geological Time 64
Geological Time Scale 70
Principal Stages in the Formation of the
Earth’s Crust 76
This Variable Face of the Earth 84
Weathering and Soils 86
Surface and Subsurface Waters 90
Glaciers 98
Wind Action 104 .
Geological Activity of Seas 108
Volcanoes and Earthquakes HI
Present-day Volcanoes 112
Volcanic Activity 118
Causes and Distribution of Earthquakes 123
Earthquake Studies and Prediction 128
8 Contents
A Biography of Life on the Earth 134
Origin of Organisms 134
The Appearance of Skeletal Faunas 138
The Conquest of Land 144
The Time of Dinosaurs and Mammals 147
The Life of Microorganisms 156
History of the Earth’s Climate and
Atmosphere 164
Origin of the Atmosphere 165
Climatic Variations in the Geological Past 168
Climate and the Evolution of Organisms 174
Climate in the Future 179
Marine Geology 182
Origin and Evolution of Waters of the
World Ocean 183
Why Is the Sea Salty? 186
The Structure and Geology of the Ocean
Floor 191
Marine Research Laboratories 201
Motions of Continents 21°
A. Wegener’s Hypothesis 211
Paleomagnetism and Neomobilism 216
The Tectonics of the Lithospheric Plates 220
The Mechanism of Motion of Lithospheric
Plates 224
Global Reconstructions 227
Geosynclines as Folded Mountain Systems 236
The History of the Mediterranean Sea 241
Earth’s Natural Resources and En­
vironmental Protection 246
Energy Resources 247
Mineral Resources 251
On the Protection of the Earth’s
Interior and the Environment 259
Conclusions 275
Index 278