Modern Earth Science: Student Edition 2002

758 Pages·2000·281.52 MB·English

by  RINEHART AND WINSTON HOLT

Robert J. Sager
William L. Ramsey
Clifford R. Phillips
Frank M. Watenpaugh
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
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Acknowledgments
Academic Reviewers JamesO'Connor WesleyN.CoUey,Ph.D. RichardKadish
AssociateProfessorofGeoscience PostdoctoralFellow EarthScienceTeacher
RichardBusch,Ph.D. UniversityoftheDistrict Harvard-SmithsonianCenter ChestertonHighSchool
AssociateProfessorofGeology ofColumbia forAstrophysics Chesterton,Indiana
andScienceEducation Washington,D.C. Cambridge,Massachusetts
BWeosutchCehresStceirenUcneivCeernstietry AnnePasch AndrewJ.Davis,Ph.D. LKiaftehalnedenEaKrtahsSkcaience
WestChester,Pennsylvania ProfessorofGeology Manager-ACEScienceData Instructor
UniversityofAlaskaAnchorage Center LakeTravisMiddleSchool
LarryDavis,Ph.D. Anchorage,Alaska PhysicsDepartment Austin.Texas
ADsespoacritamteenPtrooffeGsesoorloogfyGeology BobbyE.Price,Ph.D.,P.E. CaloiffTorencihanoIlnsotgiytute JanisLariviere
WPualslhmianng,toWnasShtiantegtUonniversity PLroCouifivesisilsaonEran,gTDieencephearrUitnnmigevenrtsiotfy PKaesnandeentah,JCaolhinfsoronni,aPh.D. ASWucesistetinlnca,ekeTTeeHxaiacgshherSchool
UAAVULASGFAFPSPABentnussrrimmirlyeripoissoochghebdorevcvffooeeedieirrekeeeccRrsrerirtrassCiiagsosrsostssaahpStertiniooKitttia,,,ttBrraeednc.GCyyt.scWkMooCreoPP,FeiaooaffDerlrlHossUlffoloMieAGlxcesniffeicnWtsoeif,aoceeghcksirotvocnssekehastPrerhlsssf,incrsehuooPooioisgo,i.sarrnnrgPaiancneDoythPooiRsnt,.myff.fheityiPsD.nsGGceh.Deea..oorDllc.oohggyy NAUHDUMBUKAPRsnnnsoroiuaoeaaSoisiisonsarxnncnnivvvoffotmmtseheeaddcenoliGaterrrosinule,aensssFEsoar.ldtniiiionot,lutFstttrhlveLE.lhdyyyoiOoo.PoeoePfruRHgkrrrooofVriooauyiilfffCoSisfnMedwibafyeeiOHMmsaaavaiehslauieaknirissnovnlxnwdliiasoa,amt,anoramE,Gaai,rehniPPeliPgohhDoBihm.S.aepint.cDDaphoeDi..yalMee.,sroranigtinPccymn.eosegEan.t JNTATZPYVPLDLDrsoaeaoohueeaeosGEslGxlsbppesvwjiteneeaebaaeeasdvAoosArorrctpoUrHnipceictttacnThgarherheknmmtieevoyLoehto,eveAclneLsesmrenn.ehmnPiTaaapiKrttser,elcdsasnoMU,onxisectoogtnAcCfttarefrfiCh,soeCaysavysasnGGollClePosnvfeeoirucoehPaoofrsricr.rlollpiateDroatooootin.ygr,f,ggeciaryyuaPtPaStichmhaiosn..endDDnt..ist JTOAAMDMKMDSSKHBjitlcelcehaaaeeaal.itbibmnetavvimlereuusi,hdiieBnonTqqSandnacpcuChsuasogceoekaeaenf.hCRllerCcBrdTTiir.eiSrqh.WqeefttcaeueSauaaloyaHiPelncr,csrec\nie.uidnhhhingMlSeiPeCeticcNhiclnauorrnkeshcebelgeSsoelylDwtrcoioeeTohuclgpeMnoreaSaeoicrclxhhtioemcoreolnst
AssociateProfessor
MaryK.Hemenway,Ph.D. 2002 Edition DepartmentofPhysics Governmentand
AstronomyDepartment GeorgetownUniversity Industry Reviewers
UniversityofTexas MeadAllison,Ph.D. Washington,D.C.
JUAAnusaisHsnvtoyiecdHnrir.saooitlpTteoeymgxPaioarcnfsofsCSea,cslsiioePfrnho,c.renDi.a ATGPsaeasolxuifvalsesOtsDacAtne.otnaA&,nPsorTMigoemfrxeUoaasnpwssih,ovyrePrhs.itDy. JGAUansoiisanvoeencsrinvsaiitMlteloyePs.rosofFaflFe,olsrosPirohdira.doaDf.Geography WSDRiotAErcesRehvtceDeatsbnot'lreSAiros..fhNNmaBGetreenuywotrs.laYlooIognnSrycck.ience
DRBParrivoicifghseh,saasrComdarlYiJooffauocGnrknegsioaoUgnnri,avpePhrhsy.iDty. CADaseGPlspliieafsaorotnltareonnmtgtiaeayrnPytIranoSnosfcdtfeiisetPGsunhetocyoerescsiohcfesmiasntdry THRIAnuehissseltteiaitaUrnurn,yticevhTCeeflrAoxsrseaissmGtoeeycoinopatfhtyeTOselixscaossn,Ph.D. GGODaerrloyellxatoscg.EihnsTeetenrxgaMys.CoGimlplaisny
Provo,Utah ofTechnology CliffMorrison
JamesKaler,Ph.D. Pasadena,California TeacherReviewers ChiefMeteorologist
UPnriovfeersssiotryooffAIsltlrinoonisomy JDiorhenctAo.r-BMrapopciknhga,uCsh,arPthm.gD,. REaorbtehrStciWe.ncAevTaekaicahenr KAu«sEtiYnE,TTeVxas
Urbana,Illinois andGeodesyProgram AlamoJuniorHighSchool JoelL.Morrison,Ph.D.
TimothyLincoln,Ph.D. DepartmentofGeographyand Midland,Texas Chief.GeographyDivision
PArlobfieosnsoCrololfeGgeeology UnEintveidrSotnamteenstMailliEtnagriynAeecraidnegmy DennisW.Cheek,Ph.D. UW.aSs.hiBnugrteoanu.oDf.Ct.heCensus
Albion.Michigan WestPoint,NewYork CoordinatorofMathematics,
ScienceandTechnology
ThomasMyers,Ph.D. RliodeIslandDepartment
ProfessorofChemistryEmeritus ofElementaryand
KentStateUniversity SecondaryEducation
Kent,Ohio Providence,RhodeIsland
iii
Contents
introducingEarthScience xvi
LabandFieldSafety xviii
ConceptMapping xxi
UNIT
I
Chapter 1 Introduction to Earth Science 2
1.1 WhatIsEarthScience? 3
EarthBeat:The Earth'sCircumference 4
1.2 PathstoDiscovery: ScientificMethods 9
Science&Technology:TheInternet 10
1.3 BirthofaTheory: The Big Bang 14
Small-ScaleInvestigation:The Big BangTheory ... 17
Chapter 1 Review 18
In-DepthInvestigation: ScientificMethod 20
Chapter2 The Earth in Space 22
2.1 Earth:AUniquePlanet 23
CareerFocus: EarthStructure
(FieldGeologist,InstrumentationTechnician,Surveyor) 26
2.2 MovementsoftheEarth 29
ImpactonSociety: BiologicalClocks 33
2.3 Artificial Satellites 35
Small-ScaleInvestigation: GravityandOrbits 37
Chapter2 Review 38
In-Depth Investigation: Earth-SunMotion 40
Chapter3 Models ofthe Earth 42
3.1 FindingLocationsontheEarth 43
3.2 MappingtheEarth'sSurface 46
3.3 TopographicMaps 50
Science&Technology:
Navstar.AGlobalPositioningSystem 52
Small-ScaleInvestigation:TopographicMaps 54
Chapter3 Review 56
In-Depth Investigation: ContourMaps 58
MapsinAction: JourneytoRedRiver 60
Eyeonthe Environment: MappingLifeon Earth 62
The Dynamic Earth 64
Chapter4 Plate Tectonics 66
4.1 ContinentalDrift 67
EarthBeat: EvidenceofSeafloorSpreading 69
Impacton Society:
LivingontheMid-Atlantic Ridge 70
4.2 TheTheoryofPlateTectonics 72
Small-ScaleInvestigation:
Lithospheric PlateBoundaries 75
Chapter4Review 78
In-DepthInvestigation:
A ModelofConvectionCurrents 80
Chapter5 Deformation ofthe Crust 82
5.1 HowtheCrustIsDeformed 83
5.2 TheResultsofStress 85
Small-ScaleInvestigation: FoldsandFractures 87
5.3 Mountain Formation 88
Science &Technology: Tracking PlateMovements. . 90
EarthBeat:TheDisappearingMediterranean 93
Chapter5Review 94
In-DepthInvestigation: ContinentalCollisions 96
Chapter6 Earthquakes 98
6.1 EarthquakesandPlateTectonics 99
EarthBeat:TheBigSqueeze 102
6.2 RecordingEarthquakes 103
Small-Scale Investigation: Seismographic Record . . 105
6.3 EarthquakeDamage 106
Impacton Society: TheGreatHanshinEarthquake 107
.
CareerFocus: EarthForces(Tectonophysicist,
Volcanologist,ExplorationGeophysicist) 108
Chapter6 Review 112
In-DepthInvestigation: EarthquakeWaves 114
Chapter7 Volcanoes 116
1^
7.1 VolcanoesandPlateTectonics 117
7.2 VolcanicEruptions 120
Small-ScaleInvestigation:VolcanicCones 123
ImpactonSociety: Krakatau 125
7.3 ExtraterrestrialVolcanism 126
Chapter7 Review 128
In-DepthInvestigation: HotSpotsandVolcanoes 130
MapsinAction:ACaseoftheTennesseeShakes 132
EyeontheEnvironment:
Volcanoes PutaChill intheAir 134
Chapter8 Earth Chemistry 138
8.1 Matter 139
Small-ScaleInvestigation:
ElectricallyChargedObjects 140
Science&Technology: TheSmallestParticles .... 144
8.2 CombinationsofAtoms 147
Chapter8 Review 152
In-DepthInvestigation: ChemicalAnalysis 154
Chapter9 Minerals ofthe Earth's Crust 156
9.1 WhatIsaMineral? 157
CareerFocus: MineralResources
»S (MiningEngineer,GemCutter,MineInspector) 160
I 9.2 IdentifyingMinerals 163
I Small-ScaleInvestigation: MineralIdentification . . 167
f ImpactonSociety: MineralResources 169
Chapter9Review 170
In-DepthInvestigation: MineralIdentification 172
Chapter 10 Rocks 174
10.1 RocksandtheRockCycle 175
10.2 IgneousRock 178
Small-Scale Investigation: CrystalFormation 180
10.3 SedimentaryRock 182
Science&Technology: LandsatMapstheWorld . . 184
10.4 MetamorphicRock 187
EarthBeat: MoonRocks 189
Chapter 10Review 190
In-DepthInvestigation: ClassificationofRocks 192
Chapter 11 Resources and Energy 194
11.1 MineralResources 195
11.2 FossilFuels 198
11.3 NuclearEnergy 202
11.4 AlternativeEnergySources 204
Small-Scale Investigation: SolarCollector 205
Science&Technology: SolarTwo 206
Chapter 11 Review 208
In-DepthInvestigation:
ExtractionofCopperfrom ItsOre 210
MapsinAction: BuriedTreasure 212
EyeontheEnvironment:What'sMinedIsYours 214
Chapter 12 Weathering and Erosion 218
12.1 WeatheringProcesses .219
Small-ScaleInvestigation: MechanicalWeathering 220
.
ImpactonSociety:The PriceofCorrosion 223
12.2 RatesofWeathering 224
12.3 WeatheringandSoil 227
12.4 Erosion 231
CareerFocus: NaturalResources(SoilConservationist,
Hydrologist,WaterPurificationTechnician) 234
Chapter 12 Review 238
In-Depth Investigation: SoilChemistry 240
Chapter 13 Water and Erosion 242
13.1 TheWaterCycle 243
EarthBeat: LifeCycleofaLake 245
13.2 RiverSystems 247
Small-ScaleInvestigation: Soil Erosion 248
13.3 StreamDeposition 252
ImpactonSociety:ARiverandaCity 253
Chapter 13 Review 256
In-Depth Investigation: SedimentsandWater 258
Chapter 14 Groundwater and Erosion 260
14.1 WaterBeneaththe Surface 261
Small-ScaleInvestigation: Permeability 262
vii
14.2 WellsandSprings 266
14.3 GroundwaterandChemicalWeathering 269
ImpactonSociety: DisappearingLand 270
Chapter 14Review 272
In-Depth Investigation: Porosity 274
Chapter 15 Glaciers and Erosion 276
15.1 Glaciers: MovingIce 277
Science&Technology:
MonitoringIce StreamsinAntarctica 280
15.2 LandformsCreatedbyGlaciers 282
Small-ScaleInvestigation: Glacial Erosion 284
EarthBeat: LakeAgassiz 288
15.3 IceAges 289
Chapter15Review 292
In-DepthInvestigation: GlaciersandSeaLevel 294
Chapter 16 Erosion byWind and Waves 296
16.1 WindErosion 297
Small-ScaleInvestigation: DuneMigration 300
16.2 WaveErosion 302
16.3 CoastalErosionandDeposition 307
Impacton Society:TheFloodingofVenice 309
Chapter 16Review 312
In-DepthInvestigation: Beaches 314
MapsinAction:
WhatComesDownMustGo Where? 316
. . .
EyeontheEnvironment: LosingGround 318
Chapter 17 The Rock Record 322
17.1 DeterminingRelativeAge 323
17.2 DeterminingAbsoluteAge 327
Science&Technology:
Advances in Uranium-LeadDating 330
Small-ScaleInvestigation: RadioactiveDecay 332
17.3 TheFossil Record 334
EarthBeat: CluestoClimate 339
Chapter 17 Review 340
In-DepthInvestigation: Fossils 342