Modern Chemical Technology and Emission Control

473 Pages·1985·18.747 MB·English

by  M. B. Hocking (auth.)

M. B. Hocking
Modem
Chemical Technology
and Emission Control
With 152 Figures
Springer-Verlag
Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo
M. B. Hocking
Department of Chemistry
University of Victoria
Victoria, British Columbia
Canada V8W 2Y2
ISBN-13 :978-3-642-69775-3 e-ISBN-13 :978-3-642-69773-9
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-69773-9
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Hocking, M. B. (Martin Blake), 1938
Modem chemical technology and emission control.
Bibliography: p.
I. Chemistry, Technical. 2. Environmental chemistry. I. Title.
TP155.H58 1984 660.2 84·10604
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© Springer·Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg 1985
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1985
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215213020 - 5 4 3 2 1 0
Preface
This text of applied chemistry considers the interface between chemistry and
chemical engineering, using examples of some of the important process in
dustries. Integrated with this is detailed consideration of measures which may
be taken for avoidance or control of potential emissions. This new emphasis
in applied chemistry has been developed through eight years of experience
gained from working in industry in research, development and environment
al control fields, plus twelve years of teaching here using this approach. It is
aimed primarily towards science and engineering students as well as to envi
ronmentalists and practising professionals with responsibilities or an interest
in this interface.
By providing the appropriate process information back to back with emis
sions and control data, the potential for process fine-tuning is improved for
both raw material efficiency and emission control objectives. This approach
also emphasizes integral process changes rather than add-on units for emis
sion control. Add-on units have their place, when rapid action on an urgent
emission problem is required, or when control simply is not feasible by pro
cess integral changes alone. Obviously fundamental process changes for
emission containment are best conceived at the design stage. However, at
whatever stage process modifications are installed, this approach to control
should appeal to the industrialist in particular, in that something more sub
stantial than decreased emissions may be gained.
This book may also be used as a general source of information and further
leads to the details of process chemistry, or as a source of information relat
ing to air and water pollution chemistry. Many references are cited to provide
easy access to additional background material. The dominant sources cited
may generally be recognized by the number of direct citations given in the
chapter. Article titles are given with the citation for any anonymous material
to aid in retrieval and consultation. Sources of further information on the
subject of each chapter, but generally not cited in the text, are also given in a
short Relevant Bibliography list immediately following the text. Tradenames .
have been recognized by capitalization, when known, and sufficient detail is
mentioned or referenced to each of these to enable them to be followed up, if
desired. It would be appreciated if any unrecognized tradename usage is
brought to the author's attention.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to numerous contacts in industry and environmental laborato
ries who have willingly contributed and exchanged technical information in
cluded in this book. I would particularly like to thank the following who have
materially assisted in this way: B. R. Buchanan, Dow Chemical Inc.;
W. Cary, Suncor; R. G. M. Cosgrove, Imperial Oil Enterprises Ltd.; F. G.
Colladay, Morton Salt Co.; J. F. C. Dixon, Canadian Industries Ltd.; R. W.
Ford, Dow Chemical Inc.; T. Gibson, B. C. Cement Co.; G. J. Gurnon, Alcan
Smelters and Chemicals Ltd.; D. Hill, B. C. Forest Products; J. A. McCou
brey, Lambton Industrial Society; R. D. McInerney, Canadian Industries
Ltd.; R. C. Merrett, Canoxy, Canadian Occidental Petroleum; S. E. Moscho
pedis, Alberta Research Council; J. C. Mueller, B. C. Research; J. A. Pa
quette, Kalium Chemicals; J. N. Pitts, Jr., Air Pollution Research Centre,
University of California; J. R. Prough, Kamyr Inc.; J. G. Sanderson, McMil
lan-Bloedel Ltd.; A. D. Shendrikar, The Oil Shale Corp.; J. G. Speight, Ex
xon; A. Stelzig, Environmental Protection Service; H. E. Worster, MacMil
lan-Bloedel Ltd. They have been credited wherever possible through their
own recent publications. These contacts are especially valuable because of
the notorious slowness of new industrial practice to appear in print.
I also thank all of the following individuals, each of whom read sections of
the text in manuscript form, and C. G. Carlson who read all of it, for their
valuable comments and suggestions that have contributed significantly to the
authenticity of this presentation:
R. D. Barer, Metallurgical Division, Defence Research Establishment Pacific
G. Bonser, Husky Oil Limited
R. A. Brown, formerly of Shell Canada
M. J. R. Clark, Environmental Chemistry, Waste Management Branch, B. C.
Government
H. Dotti, Mission Hill Vineyards
M. Kotthuri, Meteorology Section, Waste Management Branch, B. C. Gov
ernment
J. Leja, Dept. of Mining and Mineral Process Engineering, University of Brit
ish Columbia
L. J. Macaulay, Labatt Breweries of B. c., Ltd.
D. J. MacLaurin, formerly of MacMillan-Bloedel Ltd.
R. N. O'Brien, Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria
M. E. D. Raymont, Sulphur Development Institute of Canada
W. G. Wallace, Alcan Smelters and Chemicals, Ltd.
R. F. Wilson, Dow Chemical Canada Inc.
M. D. Winning, Shell Canada Resources Ltd.
But without the support of the University of Victoria, the Department of
Chemistry, and my family to work within, this book would never have been
completed. lowe a debt of gratitude to the inexhaustible patience of my wife,
Diana, who handled the whole of the initial inputting of the manuscript into
the computer, corrected several drafts, and executed all of the original line
VIII Acknowledgements
drawings. Thanks also go to K. Hartman who did the photographic work, to
B. J. Hiscock and L. J. Proctor, who were unfailingly encouraging and help
ful to adoption of the computer for manuscript preparation, even when the
occasional seemingly hopeless scrambles occurred, and to L. G. Charron and
M. Cormack, who completed the final manuscript.
Some of the line drawings and one photograph are borrowed courtesy of
other publishers and authors, as acknowledged with each of these illustra
tions. To all of these I extend my thanks.
I am also grateful to the personnel at Springer-Verlag, in particular F. L.
Boschke for his initial invitation and encouragement, and R. Stumpe,
R. Sakolowski, and H. Schoenefeldt for their care and attention to detail dur
ing production.
Table of Contents
1 Background and Technical Aspects of the Chemical Industry . 1
1.1 Important General Characteristics ... 1
1.2 Types and Significance of Information . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 The Value ofintegration .............. . 5
1.4 The Economy of Scale . . ... . 6
1.5 Chemical Processing ........ . 8
1.5.1 Types of Reactor .......... . 8
1.5.2 Fluid Flow Through Pipes . . . . . . 11
1.5.3 Controlling and Recording Instrumentation . 12
1.5.4 Costs of Operation ............ .. 14
1.5.5 Conversion and Yield. . . . . . . . . 15
1.5.6 Importance of Reaction Rate .... 17
1.6 Chemical Volume Perspectives . 17
Relevant Bibliography . 20
References . . . . . . .. 21
2 Air Quality and Emission Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Significance of Man's Activity on Atmospheric Quality 23
2.1.1 Natural Contaminants ............... . 23
2.2 Classification of Air Pollutants ............ .. 24
2.2.1 Quantification and Identification of Particulates .. 25
2.2.2 Quantification and Identification of Aerosols . . . . 27
2.2.3 Analysis of Gaseous Air Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.3.1 Wet Chemical Analysis of Gases .......... . 29
2.2.3.2 Instrumental Methods for Gas Analysis .... . 30
2.2.3.3 Concentration Units for Gases in Air . . . . . . . 33
2.2.3.4 Biological Methods for Air Pollution Assessment 34
2.3 Effects of Air Pollutants .............. . 35
2.4 Air Pollutant Inventories, and Pollutant Weighting. 38
2.4.1 Automotive Emission Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.2 Air Pollutant Weighting ............... . 40
2.5 Methods and Limitations of Air Pollutant Dispersal 41
2.6 Air Pollution Abatement by Containment 43
2.6.1 Pre-combustion Removal Methods . . . . . . 43
2.7 Post-combustion Emission Control . . . . . . 44
2.7.1 Particulate and Aerosol Collection Theory . . 44
2.7.2 Particulate and Aerosol Collection Devices . 45
2.7.3 Hydrocarbon Emission Control . . . . 47
2.7.4 Control of Sulfur Dioxide Emissions . 48
2.7.5 Control of Nitrogen Oxide Emissions. . . . . . . . 53
Relevant Bibliography 54
References ...... . 54
X Table of Contents
3 Water Quality and Emission Control. 61
3.1 Water Quality, Supply, and Waste Water Treatment 61
3.2 Water Quality Criteria and Their Measurement 62
3.2.1 Suspended Solids . . . . . . . . . 63
3.2.2 Dissolved Solids . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.3 Total Solids or Residue Analysis 66
3.2.4 Dissolved Oxygen Content . . . 67
3.2.5 Relative Acidity and Alkalinity 69
3.2.6 Toxic Substances 70
3.2.7 Micro-organisms 71
3.2.8 Temperature . . . 72
3.2.9 Oxygen Demand 73
3.2.10 Biological Indicators 76
3.3 Water Quality Related to End Uses 76
3.4 Treatment of Municipal Water Supplies 77
3.4.1 Simple Municipal Water Treatment. . . 77
3.4.2 More Elaborate Municipal Water Treatment Methods 80
3.4.3 Municipal Water by Desalination . . . . 82
3.4.4 Water Quality Requirements of Industry . . . . . . . . 83
3.5 Treatment of Municipal Waste Waters . . . . . . . . . 85
3.5.1 Discharge Requirements, and Remedies to Post-Discharge Degrada-
tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.5.2 Stream Assimilatory Capacities . . . . . . . 87
3.5.3 Primary and Secondary Sewage Treatment. 88
3.5.4 Tertiary, or Advanced Sewage Treatment 91
3.5.5 Sludge Handling and Disposal. . . . . . . . 93
3.6 Industrial Liquid Waste Disposal . . . . . . 93
3.6.1 Aqueous Wastes With High Suspended Solids. 94
3.6.2 Aqueous Wastes Containing an Immiscible Liquid 94
3.6.3 Heated Effluent Discharges ... . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6.4 Aqueous Waste Streams with a High Oxygen Demand 95
3.6.5 Highly Coloured Waste Waters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6.6 Fluid and Solid Combustible Wastes . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6.7 Neutralization and Volume Reduction of Intractible Waste Streams 96
3.6.8 Ultimate Destruction or Disposal of Hazardous Wastes 97
Relevant Bibliography 98
References . . . . . . . 98
4 Natural and Derived Sodium and Potassium Salts 105
4.1 Sodium Chloride .............. . 105
4.1.1 Solar Salt ................... . 106
4.1.2 Sodium Chloride by Conventional Mining. 106
4.1.3 Solution Mining of Sodium Chloride . . . . 108
4.1.4 New Developments in Sodium Chloride Recovery 111
4.2 Potassium Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.2.1 Potassium Chloride Production and Use Pattern . 111
4.2.2 Potassium Chloride Recovery from Natural Brines 112
4.2.3 Potassium Chloride by Conventional Mining and Froth Flotation 113
4.2.4 Solution Mining of Potassium Chloride .............. . 115
4.2.5 Environmental Aspects of Sodium and Potassium Chloride Recovery 116
4.2.6 New Developments in Potassium Chloride Recovery. 117
4.3 Sodium Sulfate ................. . 118
4.3.1 Production and Use Pattern for Sodium Sulfate .... 118
Table of Contents XI
4.3.2 Recovery from Natural Brines. 119
4.3.3 By-product Sodium Sulfate 119
Relevant Bibliography .. 119
References ........ . 119
5 Industrial Bases by Chemical Routes. . . . . . . . . 122
5.1 Calcium Carbonate . . . . . . 122
5.2 Calcium Oxide. . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.1 Lime Kiln Emission Control . 124
5.2.2 Uses of Calcium Oxide . . . . 124
5.3 Calcium Hydroxide . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.3.1 Uses of Calcium Hydroxide ...... . 125
5.4 Natural and Synthetic Sodium Carbonate ... 126
5.4.1 Environmental and Related Concerns of Sodium Carbonate Produc-
tion ........................ . 127
5.4.2 Uses of Sodium Carbonate ............ . 128
5.5 Sodium Hydroxide by Causticization . . . . . . . 128
5.5.1 Emission Controls for the Causticization Process 132
Relevant Bibliography 132
References ...... . 132
6 Electrolytic Sodium Hydroxide and Chlorine and Related Commodities 134
6.1 Electrochemical Background and Brine Pretreatment. .. ...... 134
6.1.1 Brine Electrolysis in Diaphragm Cells .................. 135
6.1.2 Brine Electrolysis in Chlorate Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.1.3 Purification of Crude Diaphragm Cell Products . . . 138
6.2 Electrochemical Aspects of Brine Electrolysis . 139
6.3 Brine Electrolysis in Mercury Cells . . . . . . . 141
6.4 Emission Control Aspects of Brine Electrolysis 144
6.5 New Developments in Brine Electrolysis. . . . 148
6.6 Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide Production, Use and Balance. 150
Relevant Bibliography .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
References . . . . . . . . . 153
7 Sulfur and Sulfuric Acid ........ 155
7.1 Commercial Production of Sulfur . . . 155
7.2 Properties of Elemental Sulfur. . . . . . 157
7.3 Sulfur Recovery by Mining and Retorting 157
7.4 Frasch Sulfur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
7.4.1 Environmental Aspects of Frasch Operations 160
7.5 Sulfur from Sour Natural Gas .......... 161
7.5.1 Amine Absorption Process for Hydrogen Sulfide Removal .. 161
7.5.2 Claus Process Conversion of Hydrogen Sulfide to Sulfur. . .. 163
7.6 New Developments and Emission Controls, Claus Technology 165
7.7 Sulfuric Acid. . . . . . . . . . . 166
7.7.1 Contact Process Sulfuric Acid . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.8 Chamber Process Sulfuric Acid .......... 171
7.9 Emission Containment for Sulfuric Acid Plants . 174
7.9.1 Contact Process Sulfuric Acid Emission Control 174
7.9.2 Emission Control for Chamber Process Acid Plants. 176
XII Table of Contents
7.10 Recycling of Sulfuric Acid 177
Relevant Bibliography 178
References . . . . . . . 179
8 Phosphorus and Phosphoric Acid. . . . . . . . 182
8.1 Phosphate Rock Deposits and Beneficiation . 182
8.1.1 End Use Areas for Phosphate Rock. . . . . . 183
8.1.2 Environmental Impacts of Phosphate Rock Processing. 183
8.2 Elemental Phosphorus . . . . . 183
8.2.1 Electric Furnace Phosphorus. . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
8.2.2 Uses of Elemental Phosphorus. . . . . . . . . . . . 187
8.2.3 Environmental Aspects of Phosphorus Production 187
8.3 Phosphoric Acid via Phosphorus Combustion. . . 189
8.3.1 Environmental Features of Furnace Phosphoric Acid Production. 190
8.4 Phosphoric Acid Using Sulfuric Acid Acidulation ......... 191
8.4.1 Operation of the Acidulation Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
8.4.2 New Developments and Variations on Sulfuric Acid Acidulation Me-
thod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8.4.3 Emission Control Measures for Wet Process Acid. . . . 195
8.5 Phosphoric Acid Using Hydrochloric Acid Acidulation 197
8.5.1 Product Recovery by Solvent Extraction . . . . . 197
8.5.2 Haifa (or IMI) Phosphoric Acid Process Details. 199
8.5.3 Haifa Process Byproducts and Waste Disposal . 201
8.6 Major Producers and Users of Phosphoric Acid . 201
Relevant Bibliography 202
References . . . . . . . 202
9 Ammonia, Nitric Acid and their Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205
9.1 Ammonia, Historical Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205
9.1.1 Principles of Ammonia Synthesis: the Haber, or Haber-Bosch Process 206
9.1.2 Feedstocks for Ammonia Synthesis, Air Distillation ..... 207
9.1.3 Ammonia Feedstocks, Reforming and Secondary Reforming 209
9.1.4 Ammonia Synthesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
9.1.5 Major Uses of Ammonia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
9.1.6 New Developments in Ammonia Synthesis Technology 214
9.1.7 Environmental Concerns of Ammonia Production 216
9.2 Production of Nitric Acid ................. 218
9.2.1 Nitric Acid Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
9.2.2 Nitric Acid by Ammonia Oxidation, Chemistry and Process Conside-
rations ................... 219
9.2.3 Process Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
9.2.4 Nitric Acid Concentrations and Market ..... . . . 221
9.2.5 Nitric Acid Process Variants and New Developments 223
9.2.6 Emission Control Features . . . . 223
9.3 Commercial Ammonium Nitrate . 225
9.3.1 Ammonium Nitrate Background . 225
9.3.2 Production of Ammonium Nitrate 226
9.4 Production of Urea .... 221
9.5 Synthetic Fertilizers .. 228
9.5.1 Fertilizer Composition .. 228