Modern Ceramic Engineering: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design

837 Pages·2018·118.61 MB·English

by  David W. Richerson

Modern Ceramic Engineering
Properties, Processing, and Use in Design
Fourth Edition
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Modern Ceramic Engineering
Properties, Processing, and Use in Design
Fourth Edition
David W. Richerson
William E. Lee
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed on acid-free paper
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-1691-8 (Hardback)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-4294-8824-5 (eBook)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to
publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materi-
als or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material
reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained.
If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in
any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, micro-
filming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright .com (http://www
.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-
8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that
have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi-
cation and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................................................xxi
Authors .........................................................................................................................................xxiii
Part I Ceramics as Engineering Materials
Chapter 1 What Is a Ceramic? ......................................................................................................3
1.1 Definitions of Ceramics .....................................................................................3
1.2 Material Types Generally Considered in the Ceramics Family ........................3
1.2.1 Polycrystalline Ceramics Fabricated by Sintering ...............................3
1.2.2 Glass .....................................................................................................4
1.2.3 Glass Ceramics .....................................................................................4
1.2.4 Single Crystals of Ceramic Compositions ...........................................4
1.2.5 Chemical Synthesis or Bonding ...........................................................5
1.2.6 Natural Ceramics .................................................................................5
1.3 So What Is a Ceramic? ......................................................................................5
Special Optional Assignment .......................................................................................6
References ....................................................................................................................7
Study Guide ..................................................................................................................7
Chapter 2 History of Ceramics .....................................................................................................9
2.1 Ceramics in the Stone Age ................................................................................9
2.1.1 Use of Natural Ceramics ......................................................................9
2.1.2 Synthetic Stone: Clay Transformed by Fire .......................................11
2.1.3 First Practical Use of Earthenware ....................................................11
2.1.4 Other Neolithic Ceramic Innovations ................................................12
2.2 Rise of Traditional Ceramic Industries ...........................................................13
2.2.1 Ceramic Innovations during the Chalcolithic Period .........................13
2.2.2 Ceramics and the Metal Ages ............................................................15
2.2.3 Emergence of Glass ............................................................................15
2.2.4 Ceramics in Building .........................................................................16
2.2.5 Ceramic Whitewares ..........................................................................20
2.3 From Traditional to Modern Ceramics ............................................................21
2.4 Summary .........................................................................................................23
References ..................................................................................................................23
Additional Recommended Reading on Technical Aspects of Traditional Ceramics ......23
Study Guide ................................................................................................................23
Chapter 3 Applications: Engineering with Ceramics .................................................................25
3.1 High-Temperature Applications ......................................................................25
3.1.1 Ceramics in Metal Processing ............................................................25
3.1.2 Glass Production ................................................................................29
3.1.3 Industrial Processes ............................................................................29
3.1.3.1 Furnace and Reaction Vessel Linings.................................29
v
vi Contents
3.1.3.2 Heat Sources .......................................................................30
3.1.3.3 Heat Exchangers .................................................................30
3.1.3.4 Heat Exchange for Chemical Processing ............................33
3.1.4 Heat Engines ......................................................................................34
3.1.4.1 Gas Turbine Engines ...........................................................34
3.1.4.2 Internal Combustion Engines .............................................37
3.1.4.3 Aerospace ...........................................................................38
3.2 Wear and Corrosion Resistance Applications .................................................39
3.2.1 Seals ...................................................................................................39
3.2.2 Valves .................................................................................................43
3.2.3 Pumps .................................................................................................46
3.2.4 Bearings..............................................................................................46
3.2.5 Thread Guides ....................................................................................48
3.2.6 Ceramics in Papermaking ..................................................................49
3.3 Cutting and Grinding ......................................................................................49
3.3.1 Ceramic Cutting Tool Inserts .............................................................50
3.3.2 Superhard Abrasives ...........................................................................53
3.3.3 Waterjet Cutting .................................................................................53
3.4 Electrical Applications of Ceramics ................................................................54
3.4.1 Ceramic Electrical Insulators .............................................................54
3.4.2 Dielectric Ceramics ............................................................................57
3.4.3 Semiconductors ..................................................................................58
3.4.4 Electrical Conductors .........................................................................60
3.4.5 Ceramic Superconductors ..................................................................63
3.5 Magnetic Ceramics ..........................................................................................64
3.6 Optical Applications of Ceramics ...................................................................65
3.6.1 Applications Based on Transparency .................................................66
3.6.1.1 Window Glass .....................................................................66
3.6.1.2 Container Glass ...................................................................68
3.6.1.3 Optical Glass Fibers ............................................................68
3.6.1.4 Lenses .................................................................................68
3.6.2 Applications Based on Phosphorescence and Fluorescence ..............69
3.6.2.1 Fluorescent Light ................................................................69
3.6.2.2 Television and Oscilloscopes ..............................................69
3.6.2.3 Electroluminescent Lamps .................................................70
3.6.2.4 Lasers ..................................................................................70
3.7 Composites ......................................................................................................71
3.8 Medical Applications of Ceramics ..................................................................72
3.8.1 Replacement and Repair .....................................................................72
3.8.1.1 Dental Ceramics .................................................................72
3.8.1.2 Hip Implants .......................................................................74
3.8.1.3 Spine Repair .......................................................................75
3.8.1.4 Middle-Ear Implants ...........................................................75
3.8.1.5 Eye Repairs .........................................................................75
3.8.1.6 Heart Valve Implants ..........................................................76
3.8.1.7 Prosthetic Devices ..............................................................76
3.8.2 Ceramics for Medical Diagnosis ........................................................76
3.8.2.1 CT Scanner .........................................................................76
3.8.2.2 Endoscopy ...........................................................................77
3.8.2.3 Ultrasound Imaging ............................................................78
3.8.3 Ceramics in Medical Treatment and Therapy ....................................79
Contents vii
3.9 Energy Efficiency and Pollution Control .........................................................81
3.9.1 Energy Savings in the Home ..............................................................81
3.9.1.1 Fiberglass Insulation ...........................................................81
3.9.1.2 Efficient Light Sources .......................................................82
3.9.1.3 Gas Appliances ...................................................................84
3.9.2 Ceramics for Power Generation .........................................................84
3.9.3 Ceramics in the Transportation Sector ...............................................85
3.9.4 Other Uses of Ceramics for Energy Efficiency and Pollution Control ....87
3.10 Military ............................................................................................................87
3.11 Recreation ........................................................................................................88
3.12 Ceramics Modeling and Simulation ................................................................89
3.13 Summary .........................................................................................................92
References ..................................................................................................................92
Study Guide ................................................................................................................93
Part II Structures and Properties
Chapter 4 Atomic Bonding and Crystal Structure ......................................................................97
4.1 Electronic Configuration of Atoms .................................................................97
4.2 Bonding .........................................................................................................100
4.2.1 Metallic Bonding ..............................................................................102
4.2.2 Ionic Bonding ...................................................................................102
4.2.3 Covalent Bonding .............................................................................107
4.2.4 Ionic and Covalent Bond Combinations ...........................................109
4.2.5 van der Waals Bonds ........................................................................109
4.3 Polymorphic Forms and Transformations .....................................................111
4.4 Noncrystalline Structures ..............................................................................113
4.4.1 Glasses ..............................................................................................113
4.4.2 Gels ...................................................................................................115
4.4.3 Vapor Deposition ..............................................................................115
4.5 Molecular Structures .....................................................................................115
4.5.1 Hydrocarbons ...................................................................................115
4.5.2 Addition Polymerization ..................................................................116
4.5.3 Condensation Polymerization ...........................................................117
4.5.4 Polymer Crystallization ....................................................................118
4.5.5 Cross-Linking and Branching ..........................................................118
References ................................................................................................................120
Problems ...................................................................................................................120
Study Guide ..............................................................................................................120
Chapter 5 Crystal Chemistry and Specific Crystal Structures .................................................123
5.1 Crystal Structure Notations ...........................................................................123
5.1.1 Crystal Systems and Bravais Lattices ..............................................123
5.1.2 Crystal Directions and Planes ..........................................................123
5.1.3 Structure, Composition, and Coordination Notations ......................127
5.2 Crystal Chemistry of Ceramics .....................................................................127
5.2.1 Crystal Chemistry Concepts ............................................................128
5.2.1.1 Ionic Radius ......................................................................128
viii Contents
5.2.1.2 Ionic Packing ....................................................................128
5.2.1.3 Effect of Charge ................................................................130
5.2.2 Crystal Chemical Substitutions ........................................................131
5.2.3 Derivative Structures ........................................................................132
5.2.3.1 Ordering ............................................................................132
5.2.3.2 Nonstoichiometry .............................................................132
5.2.3.3 Stuffing .............................................................................132
5.2.3.4 Distortion ..........................................................................133
5.3 Metallic and Ceramic Crystal Structures ......................................................133
5.3.1 Metallic Crystal Structures ..............................................................133
5.3.2 Ceramic Structures with a Single Element ......................................134
5.3.3 Binary Ceramic Structures ...............................................................138
5.3.3.1 [Rock Salt] Structure A[6]X[6] ............................................139
5.3.3.2 [Nickel Arsenide] Structure A[6]X[6] .................................139
5.3.3.3 [Cesium Chloride] Structure A[8]X[8] ................................139
5.3.3.4 [Zinc Blende] and [Wurtzite] Structures A[4]X[4] ..............139
5.3.3.5 [Fluorite] Structure A[8]X[4] ...............................................140
2
5.3.3.6 [Antifluorite] Structure A[4]X[8] .........................................141
5.3.3.7 [Rutile] Structure A[6]X[3] ..................................................141
5.3.3.8 Silica Structures A[4]X[2] ....................................................142
2
5.3.3.9 [Corundum] Structure A[6]X[4] ...........................................144
2 3
5.3.4 Ternary Ceramic Structures .............................................................144
5.3.4.1 A BX Structures ..............................................................145
2 4
5.3.4.2 ABX Structures ...............................................................148
4
5.3.4.3 ABX Structures ...............................................................148
3
5.3.4.4 Other Structures ................................................................150
5.3.4.5 Carbide and Nitride Structures .........................................151
5.3.5 Crystal Defects and Stoichiometry...................................................152
5.3.5.1 Zero-Dimensional (Point) Defects ....................................152
5.3.5.2 One-Dimensional (Line) Defects ......................................154
5.3.5.3 Two-Dimensional (Planar) Defects ..................................154
5.3.5.4 Three-Dimensional (Volume) Defects ..............................159
5.3.5.5 Accommodating Nonstoichiometry in Crystals ...............160
References ................................................................................................................160
Additional Recommended Reading..........................................................................161
Problems ...................................................................................................................161
Study Guide ..............................................................................................................162
Chapter 6 Phase Equilibria and Phase Equilibrium Diagrams .................................................163
6.1 Phase Equilibrium Diagrams ........................................................................163
6.1.1 Concept of Phase Equilibria .............................................................164
6.1.2 Phase Rule ........................................................................................164
6.1.3 One-Component Phase Diagrams ....................................................165
6.1.4 Two-Component Systems .................................................................166
6.1.4.1 Binary Eutectic Systems ...................................................168
6.1.5 Intermediate Compounds .................................................................169
6.1.5.1 Solid Solution ....................................................................174
6.1.5.2 Liquid Immiscibility .........................................................174
Contents ix
6.1.5.3 Exsolution .........................................................................176
6.1.5.4 Polymorphism ...................................................................176
6.1.6 Three-Component Systems ..............................................................177
6.1.6.1 Simple Eutectic Ternary Diagram ....................................177
6.1.6.2 Ternary System with Congruently Melting Binary
Compound AB ..................................................................181
6.1.6.3 Ternary System with Incongruently Melting Binary
Compound AB ..................................................................182
6.1.6.4 Ternary Compounds .........................................................183
6.1.6.5 Polymorphic Transformations ..........................................183
6.1.6.6 Immiscible Liquids in Ternary Systems ...........................183
6.1.6.7 Solid Solution in Ternary Systems....................................185
6.1.6.8 Real Ternary Systems .......................................................187
6.2 Phase Equilibrium Diagram Composition Calculations ...............................188
6.2.1 Composition Conversions .................................................................188
6.2.2 Binary Composition Calculations ....................................................191
6.2.3 Ternary Composition Calculations ...................................................192
6.3 Isoplethal Crystallization Paths .....................................................................193
6.3.1 Binary Isoplethal Analysis ...............................................................193
6.3.2 Ternary System Isoplethal Analysis .................................................194
6.4 Nonequilibrium Behavior ..............................................................................196
6.4.1 Sluggish Kinetics ..............................................................................197
6.4.2 Rapid Heating or Cooling ................................................................197
6.4.3 Nucleation Difficulty ........................................................................198
6.4.4 Elastic Constraint of a Polymorphic Transformation .......................198
6.4.5 Additional Information on Nonequilibrium .....................................198
References ................................................................................................................199
Problems ...................................................................................................................199
Study Guide ..............................................................................................................200
Chapter 7 Physical and Thermal Behavior ...............................................................................203
7.1 Physical Properties ........................................................................................203
7.1.1 Density..............................................................................................203
7.1.1.1 Crystallographic Density ..................................................203
7.1.1.2 Bulk Density .....................................................................205
7.1.1.3 Theoretical Density ..........................................................206
7.1.1.4 Specific Gravity ................................................................207
7.1.1.5 Open Porosity ...................................................................207
7.1.1.6 Density Comparisons ........................................................209
7.1.2 Melting Behavior ..............................................................................209
7.2 Thermal Properties ........................................................................................212
7.2.1 Heat Capacity ...................................................................................212
7.2.2 Thermal Conductivity ......................................................................213
7.3 Thermal Expansion .......................................................................................221
7.3.1 Factors Influencing Thermal Expansion ..........................................222
7.3.1.1 Thermal Expansion of Metals ..........................................222
7.3.1.2 Thermal Expansion of Ceramics ......................................223
7.3.1.3 Thermal Expansion of Noncrystalline Solids ...................228
7.3.1.4 Thermal Expansion of Organic Solids .............................228