Modeling bilingualism from structure to chaos : in honor of Kees de Bot PDF
Preview Modeling bilingualism from structure to chaos : in honor of Kees de Bot
Modeling Bilingualism Studies in Bilingualism (SiBil) The focus of this series is on psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic aspects of bilingualism. This entails topics such as childhood bilingualism, psychological models of bilingual language users, language contact and bilingualism, maintenance and shift of minority languages, and socio-political aspects of bilingualism. Editors Dalila Ayoun Robert DeKeyser University of Arizona University of Maryland Editorial Board Kees de Bot Aneta Pavlenko University of Groningen Temple University Thom Huebner Suzanne Romaine San José State University Merton College, Oxford Kenneth Hyltenstam Núria Sebastián-Gallés Stockholm University University of Barcelona Judith F. Kroll Merrill Swain Pennsylvania State University Ontario Institute for Studies in Education Johanne Paradis G. Richard Tucker University of Alberta Carnegie Mellon University Christina Bratt Paulston Li Wei University of Pittsburgh University of London Volume 43 Modeling Bilingualism. From Structure to Chaos. In Honor of Kees de Bot Edited by Monika S. Schmid and Wander Lowie Modeling Bilingualism From Structure to Chaos In Honor of Kees de Bot Edited by Monika S. Schmid Wander Lowie University of Groningen John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia TM The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of 8 American National Standard for Information Sciences – Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ansi z39.48-1984. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Modeling bilingualism from structure to chaos : in honor of Kees de Bot / edited by Monika S. Schmid, Wander Lowie. p. cm. (Studies in Bilingualism, issn 0928-1533 ; v. 43) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Bilingualism. 2. Second language acquisition. I. De Bot, Kees. II. Schmid, Monika S. III. Lowie, Wander, 1959- P115.M59 2011 404’.2--dc22 2011002402 isbn 978 90 272 4182 5 (Hb ; alk. paper) isbn 978 90 272 8700 7 (Eb) © 2011 – John Benjamins B.V. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. John Benjamins Publishing Co. · P.O. Box 36224 · 1020 me Amsterdam · The Netherlands John Benjamins North America · P.O. Box 27519 · Philadelphia pa 19118-0519 · usa Table of contents Acknowledgement vii introduction Fromstructuretochaos:Twentyyearsofmodelingbilingualism 1 Diane Larsen-Freeman, Monika S. Schmid and Wander Lowie Part I. Multilingualism Psycholinguisticperspectivesonlanguageprocessinginbilinguals 15 Judith Kroll and Daan Hermans Triggeredcode-switching:Evidencefrompicturenamingexperiments 37 Mirjam Broersma Workingmemorycapacity,inhibitorycontrol,andproficiency inasecondlanguage 59 Susan Gass and Junkyu Lee ExplanationsofassociationsbetweenL1andL2literacyskills 85 Jan H. Hulstijn Part II. Language attrition Theacquisition,attriti on,andrelearningofmissionvocabulary 115 Lynne Hansen Secondlanguageattrition:Theory,researchandchallenges 135 Lelia Murtagh Contactxtime:ExternalfactorsandvariabilityinL1attrition 155 Monika S. Schmid Theshiftingstructureofemotionsemanticsacrossimmigrantgenerations: Effectsofthesecondcultureonthefirstlanguage 177 Robert W. Schrauf and Julia Sanchez vi ModelingBilingualism Part III. Language and aging Bilingualism,code-switchingandaging: Amythofattritionandataleofcollaboration 201 Michael Clyne Languagereversionversusgeneralcognitivedecline:Towardsanew taxonomyoflanguagechangeinelderlybilingualimmigrants 221 Merel Keijzer Part IV. DST Adynamicmodelofexpert-noviceco-adaptationduringlanguage learningandacquisition 235 Paul van Geert, Henderien Steenbeek and Marijn van Dijk Thedynamicsofmultilingualism:Levelt’sspeakingmodelrevisited 267 Wander Lowie and Marjolijn Verspoor epilogue Twentyyearsofmodelingbilingualism:Fromchaostostructure– andbackagain 289 Bert Weltens Addressforcorrespondence 303 Index 305 Acknowledgement Manypeoplecontributedtotherealizationofthisvolume.Inthefirstinstance,it wasachallengetokeepourworkasecretfromthepersoninwhosehonoritwas conceived,inparticularsinceheisthevicedeaninchargeoftheresearchbudget towhich,underothercircumstances,wemighthaveappliedforfundingtosup- porttheproject.ItwasthroughthegeneroushelpofProf.JohnNerbonneand theDepartmentofHumanitiescomputing(alfa informatica)thatwewereable tonotonlycarryoutthetasksinvolvedbutalsodosoclandestinely.Wearemost gratefultoShirleySteinvoortwhoworkedontheprojectasaresearchassistant. Ourthanksalsogotothosecolleagueswhoactedasanonymousreviewersforthe paperscollectedhere.Itisinthenatureoftheblindreviewingprocessthatwe cannotrevealtheirnameshere,butwithouttheirhelpthepresentvolumewould nothavebeenrealized. Toourgrief,anddespitethefestiveoccasionofthispublication,wehaveto endonamoresombrenote:Justafterthemanuscriptforthepresentcollection wasfinished,newsofthedeathofMichaelClyne,acontributortothisvolume, memberoftheeditorialboardofthisseriesandlong-timefriendofKeesdeBot, reachedus.Hislosswillbedeeplyfeltbymany,notleastamongthemasizeable proportionofthoseworkinginappliedlinguisticsworldwide.Weareallthemore happythatwecouldincludehischapterhere. introduction From structure to chaos Twentyyearsofmodelingbilingualism DianeLarsen-Freeman*,MonikaS.Schmid** andWanderLowie** *UniversityofMichigan/**UniversityofGroningen Thepresentvolumerepresentstheattempttochartthedevelopmentofthefield ofbilingualismresearchoverthecourseofthepasttwodecades–atimeperiod roughlydelimitedbyKeesdeBot’swidelyusedandciteddevelopmentofabilin- gualspeechmodel,basedonLevelt’soriginalSpeakingmodel(Levelt1989)at oneend,andhisapplicationofDynamicSystemsTheorytomultilingualdevel- opmentattheother.Thisapproachwaschosennotonlybecauseitevidencesthe lifetimeachievementofanexceptionalscholar(nottomentionahighlyrespected andgreatlylovedhumanbeing),itisalsorepresentativeofamoregeneraltrend whichcanbeobservednotonlyinappliedlinguisticsandthelanguagesciencesat large,butwhichtosomeextentaffectsmostscientificendeavourtoday:ageneral uneasewithneat,straightforward,linearandmonodimensionalsolutions,and therecognitionthatrealityisusuallymessyandoftenunpredictable,sinceitis definedbymultiple,diverseandinterdependentfactors.Thisiswhatthesubtitle ofthepresentvolume,From structure to chaos,wasintendedtoexpress. Models and structures TheoriginsofmodernlinguisticsarecommonlylocatedwithSaussure’sCours de Linguistique Généraleandtheadoptionofastructuralistframeworkandapproach earlyinthe20thcentury.Havinghimselfbeentrainedinthediachronicschool ofhistoricalcomparativelinguisticsandtheNeogrammariantradition,Saussure optedforaframeworkthatcouldnotaccommodatetheperspectiveofconstant changepresentinthepredominantandtransdisciplinaryscientificparadigmof 2 DianeLarsen-Freeman,MonikaS.SchmidandWanderLowie theday,namelyevolution.1Thehumanities,ithadbeennoted,werenotyetready foraperspectivewhichallowedforthe“arrowoftime”:“[t]heystilllackedthe senseofasystem,amodelofhowanyformoforganizationpersists;sointhe followingperiodtheydevelopedtheirowntheme,thatofstructuralism.Change hadtobetakenofftheagendasothatwecouldstudyhowhumansystemswere organized”(Halliday1991:42). 20thcenturylinguisticswasthuslargelycharacterizedbythesearchforstruc- turalist,orlaterwell-structured,modelsthatwouldallowmappingthetrueand underlyingnatureofhumanlinguisticknowledgeonthebasisoftheoftenincon- sistentandsometimescontradictoryevidenceapparentinwhathumansactuallydo withthatknowledge.Suchmodelstypicallyconsistofelementslikeboxes(which haveaclearlydefinedinteriorandexterior,implyingthatwecandifferentiateafea- tureorphenomenonanditscontext),arrows(implyingthatonethingcausesan- other)ortrees(implyingsomekindofahierarchicalstructure)–onewell-known exampleisLevelt’sSpeakingmodel(1989,seeFigure1).Thestrengthoftheseap- proachesisthattheyhaveallowedlinguiststoarriveataninitialunderstandingof theorganizationoflinguisticknowledge,oratleastanapproximationthereof. However,thingstendtobecomemoreproblematicwhenthesemodelsareap- pliedtonon-staticscenarios,suchaslinguisticchange,languagedevelopmentand multilingualism.Insuchsituations,change,growth,butalsolossanddeteriora- tion,arekeyelementsthatneedtobetakenintoaccount–andtheydonotmerely characterizeinconvenientbuttransitorystageswhichthelearnerhastopassin developingalanguagesystem.Bilingualsare,asFrançoisGrosjeansofamously pointedout,notmerelytwomonolingualsrolledintoone(Grosjean1982);their knowledge,processinganduseoftheirlanguagesystemsdiffersininteresting waysfromthoseofspeakerswithonlyonelanguage.Linguistswhoconvincingly wanttoaccountfortheenigmathatishumanlanguagehavetodevelopmodels andexplanationsthatareabletoaccommodateincomplete,transitory,unstable, changeableandfossilizedlanguages. Oneofthemostinfluentialattemptstoextendamodelofmonolinguallan- guageprocessingtobilingualismisDeBot’s1992adaptationofLevelt’sSpeak- ingmodel(seeFigure2).Boththeoriginalmodelanditsbilingualoffspring arediscussedinseveralcontributionstothisvolume(byLowie&Verspoor,by Weltens),sowewillnotgointoitindetailhere.Sufficeittosaythatthispub- licationmarkedthebeginningofaneraofmodelsofthebilingualmindand 1. Diachrony,whilebeinganessentialcomponentofSaussure’sapproachtolanguage,could notprovideatrueperspectiveonchangeasitoccurred:thestructuralistdiachronicapproach consistsofaseriesof‘snapshots’(i.e.,synchronicobservations)whichoccuroveralongerpe- riodoftime,andcanthusmerelyapproximateanunderstandingofchangeasithappens.
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