MIT's Role in Project Apollo, Vol. I

337 Pages·2001·12.99 MB·English

R-700
MIT’s ROLE IN PROJECT APOLLO
FINAL REPORT ON CONTRACTS
NAS 9-153 AND NAS 9-4065
VOLUME I
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
ABSTRACTS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
edited by
James A. Hand
OCTOBER 1971
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, 02139
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was prepared under DSR Project 55-23890, sponsored by the Manned
Spacecraft Center of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
The description of project management was prepared by James A. Hand and is based,
in large part, upon discussions with Dr. C. Stark Draper, Ralph R. Ragan, David G.
Hoag and Lewis E. Larson. Robert C. Millard and William A. Stameris also
contributed to this volume.
The publication of this document does not constitute approval by the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration of the findings or conclusions contained herein.
It is published for the exchange and stimulation of ideas.
@ Copyright by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Published by the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory of the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, U. S. A., 1972
ii
The title of these volumes, “;LJI’I”s Role in Project Apollo”, provides but a
mcdest hint of the enormous range of accomplishments by the staff of this Laboratory
on behalf of the Apollo program. Rlanss rush into spaceflight during the 1060s
demanded fertile imagination, bold pragmatism, and creative extensions of existing
tecnnologies in a myriad of fields, The achievements in guidance and control for
space navigation, however, are second to none for their critical importance in the
success of this nation’s manned lunar-landing program, for while powerful space
vehiclesand rockets provide the environment and thrust necessary for space flight,
they are intrinsicaily incapable of controlling or guiding themselves on a mission
as complicated and sophisticated as Apollo. The great achievement of this Laboratory
was to supply the design for the primary hardware and software necessary to solve
the Apollo guidance, navigation and control problem. It is to the credit of the entire
team that this hardware and software have performed so dependably throughout the
Apollo program.
The quantum leap in technology nurtured by the Apollo program has been and
should continue to be of immensely significant benefit to this country--socially,
economically and in terms of its naticnal esteem. It is the responsibility of al!
those who contributed to the proud achievements of Apollo to convince their
countrymenof the directions thisnation ought to follow in implementing these newly
gained -and hard fought for-advances.
C. Stark Draper, President
Charles Stark Draper Laborator!
R- 700
MIT’S ROLE IN PROJECT APOLLO
Final Report on Contracts
NAS 9-153 and KM 9-4065
VOLUME I
PROJECT MANAGEMEKT
SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT
ABSTRACTS AND BIBLIOGR.APIIY
ABSTRACT
Seventy-six days after the I’resident of the United States committed the nation to a
manned lunar-landing program, the Charles Stark Draper (formerly Instrumentation)
Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology received the first major
contract of the APOL,LO program. The Laboratory was to design and implement
the requisite hardware and software for the Guidance, Navigation and Control system
of the APO1,L.O spacecraft, Chapter I of this volume of the Final Report discusses
the 1,aboratory’s management of the APOLLO project. Chapter II presents salient
features in the development of the guidance, navigation and control system hardware.
lippendix A contains abstracts of some research and engineering reports and theses
prepared under Contracts r\;&\S 9-153 and NAS g-4065, and Appendix B is a
bibliography of all such reports and theses prepared through June 1969.
V
CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
List of Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
f’reface..........................................~~~ . 1
CHXPTER I: PROJECT MANAGERilES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.0 OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.0 LABORATORY OBJECTIVES AND POLICIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.0 LilBORATORY STAFF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.1 Staffing Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Education at the Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
4.0 FISCALBACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1 General Fiscal Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2 Fiscal Background of the Apollo Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
5.0 lIPOLL0 ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. 3
5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.2 Apollo Program Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
5.3 Evolutionary Changes in Project Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 7
5.3.1 Engineering Resource Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.3.2 Hardware Development Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3.3 The Software Developmental Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
vii
CONTENTS (cont.)
5.4 Communications . . . . . , , . . . s s . . . . . . s . . , . L D r . . . . *. 26

5.4.1 Technical Memoranda 0 . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e 26
5.4.2 Administrative Letters and Memoranda . e . . . . . f . . a . . 28
5.5 Design Review Board . . . . . . , e s . s . . . . . . . . . , . - . , . . . e 29

5.6 Change Control Board . a . , 0 . . . . , . . s , , . . . . e . . . s . . . . 30
5.7 The Role of the Industrial Residents . . . . . . . . . 0 . . . . a , e * . 33
6.0 PROJECT AND MISSION DEVELOPMENT REORGANIZATION . . , , . 37
6.1 Recognition of Need for Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2 Reorganization Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.2.1 Group Definition and Tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.2.2 Project Manager Approach Adopted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.3 Software Management and Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
41
7.0 CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..=..........~......~
CHAPTER II: GN&C DEVELAOPMENT (HARDWARE) . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.0 APOLLO CONFIGURATION. . . . c b s e . . . . . . . . . . . . e e . . . s. . . 45
2.0 THE APOLL, MISSION . . . . = . . e . o . . s . . . . 0 . . . . . . . . . . . e . 47
3.0 FLIGHT EXPERIENCE SUMMARY . . , . s s . . 0.. . . . . *. . . s . . . e 51
3.1 Introduction r a . . . . . . 0 . . . . . s . . . e . . . e . . s D q . L eea e e 51

3.2 Command Module System . e ( . e . . . s , , , . . s . s . . , m . . s e e 51

3.3 Lunar Module System . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . s * . 53
3. ‘1 Inertial Measurement Unit * . . . . e . . . e . . . . s e . . . . . a e I s 55

3.4.1 Gyro or Accelerometer Failure Prediction , L . s . e . . , . 55
3.4.2 Accelerometer Performance . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . e I a 57

3.4.3 Gyro Performance . . . , . . . . . . . . . e . . . . . . e . e . . . , 57
3,5 Optical Subsystem . . . , . . . e . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . e 0 . 57

3.5.1 Star Visibility in Scanning Telescope . . . . , . . L 1. . . . . . 60
3.5.2 Star Recognition In Sextant and IMU Alignment to Stars e 0 51

3.5.3 Particles and Deposits . . . . a . . . . s . . . . . . . . L . c . . . 61
3.5.4 Lunar Module Alignment Optical Telescope . . . s . . . e e s 62

3.5.5 Other Features of the Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . e . = . - . e 62
. . .
I'll1
CONTENTS (cont.1
3.6 Computer Subsystem . ~ . . . ~ . s . . s , . . . . . , . . . . . . s . . a ‘ 63
3.7 Control Systems - Digital Autopilots . mI . . . . . , . , . . r . . , 0 64

3.7.1 Rate Derivation for Control . . . . . . . . . . . s . . . . I = . . . 65
3.7.2 Autopilot Gain Scheduling . . . . . . . a . . . , . . . . , . = . . . 66
3.7.3 Lunar Module Descent Powered Flight Control . . . ( . . r e 66

3.8 Rendezvous Navigation . . . . . . s . e , . ‘ . . . . . . . 0 . . . . * . . , 67
3.8.1 Rendezvous Measurements and Calculations s . . . . . e . s . 67
3.8.2 Lunar Module Active Rendezvous in APOLLO 9 . . . a . . . 68
3.9 Midcourse Navigation . . . . . e . . . . . . . . . . . . s . . . . . . e . a 0 68

3.10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . I~.I..~ ‘... ~..~..,...,...... 69
4.0 DESIGN OBJECTIVES AKD LIMITING FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1 Background Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1.1 Scope of the Original Project Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.2 Technical Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.2.1 Midcourse Guidance, Tu‘avigation and Control . . . . . . . . . 74
4.2.2 Lunar Landing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2.3 Lunar Launch, Transearth Injection,
Atmospheric Entry Guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.3 Limiting Design Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.3.1 GNBrC System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.3.2 System Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.2.1 Power Supply Protection . , , . ‘ . . e , . B * r . . e . 79
4.3.2.2 Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.3 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.3.1 Coupling Data Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.3.2 Inertial Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.3.3 Axis Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.3.4 Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.3.5 Prototypes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3.4 Crew Displays and Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.4.1 interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.4.2 Repetitive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.4.3 Inputs .............................. 80
4.3.4.4 Identifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
~4.3.4.5 DSKY Pushbuttons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.4.6 Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.4.7 Data Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
ix
CONTENTS (cont.)
4.3.5 Crew Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a1
4.3.6 Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.7 Computer Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.7.1 Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.3.7.2 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.7.3 InpUt-OUt-WT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.7.4 Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.7.5 Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.7.6 Logic Electrical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.3.7.7 Memory Electrical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.7.8 DSKY Electrical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.8 Optics Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.8.1 Automatic Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a4
4.3.8.1 Optics Control System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.3.8.3 Optical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.8.4 Mechanical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.8.5 Light Scatter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.9 Inertial Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a5
4.3.9.1 Accelerometer Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.9.2 Electronic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.3.9.3 Thermal Control System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.0 GNhC‘ SYSTEA’I DESCRIPTIOK - DESIGN DECISIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . a7
5.1 Interial Measurement Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.1.1 Inertial Subsystem Alignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 Optical Measurement Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.3 Onboard Computer Subsystem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
5.4 Displays and Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 01
5.5 Equipment Installation in Spacecraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.6 Overall Block Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.7 Spacecraft Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.7.1 Abort Trajectories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.7.2 Control of Propulsion Failure Backups . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.7.3 Failure Detection and Alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.7.4 Guidance and Control Backup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
X
COKTENTS (cont.j
6.0 SPACECRAFT INTERFACES *. . . . e . . B e . e.. 0 s. + t is. . s G 6 a e, 119
6.1 Command Module Interfaces . . . . . . . . . L . , r r eI . e . t . a . a 118

6.1.1 Crew Interfaces . . . . . e . I . Le . I . - . . . e . . . D e . ~ . , ii?0

6.1.2 Interface Signals . eI 1a . . - . , . e . . . . ‘ - . * e e r 0 , ‘ * B 120

6‘2 Lunar IXIoduIe Interfaces . . . . . . . . . e . . . E . . ‘ . aeDDe . s . . 121

6.2.1 Interface Signals . . . r e . . . . r . . . , . . e . , . . ar Q . . . . 122

7.0 SPECIFICATIONS, TEST REQUIREMENTS, AND TEST PROCEDURE
GENERXTION....................................., i23
7.1 Test Principles and Procedures . . . . . . s e . . . . . I . 0 . 0 . a . s 123

7.2 Generation of Requirements and Procedures . . . I . . . . . t . . ( 124
7.2.1 Major Milestones 1 . e . e 0 . L . . . . s ee . e . . . I e . a . . . 125

7.2.2 Problem Areas and Resolutions . . . . e . . . ~ . . . . . . . * ~ 125
7.2.2.1 Relation of Mission Requirements t,o Test
Requirements e o . e e . . . . . + . . . . - . . . * - e . r a . 125

7.2.2.2 Relation of Design Configuration to Test
Requirements . = 0 . . . . . . . a . . . r . e . . . . r . . I s 126

7.2.2.3 Verification of Procedures . s c . . . d . e . . 1 . . , s 126

7.2.2.4 Corrections to Procedures . . . ~ ~ . ~ . s r e s o f ‘ r 127

7.2.2.5 Education of Test Personnel I . . . . . . ‘ r . . e s . a 127

7.2.2.6 Method of Executing Tests . * * . . . ~ . . . ~ . . . . ~ 327
8.0 PROTOTYPE SYSTEMS: ASSE:MBLY AKD TEST ~ . c a ~ ~ ~ . 0 * f c s e I29
3.1 System Level Testing Problems j . . . ae . , ee . , * . . L - - s - Ev 123

8.1.1 Prototype X0. 4 . . , . . . , . . . . s . L .I a * e . 1 a e . . c n a n . 129

8.1.2 Prototype Ko. 5 . . . 0 . ~ . I . . . a . . . + I . . . e + D = . + e - e 139
8.1.3 Block I To. 164 . ~. . ~ I ~. . ~. I. r . . . . . . ‘ a.. . - e e r ?3i
8.1.4 System Yo. 600 F . I ~ ~ . . . . . . . . . ~ = ~ s . s . . r ar . - q 132

8.1.5 Systemn’o. 600 . . . . . . ~. . c -. . . . . . . . . s *. L - =. . . 13%
8.1.6 BlockIINo. 200 ~ a. e.. . -. . . . . - < . I. r. r s.. . . e 0 133
8.1.7 Coupling Data Unit Hunting (.&POLL0 11) . I I r . . . , . . e . 135

9.0 GN&C SYSTEM INTEGRATION . . . . . . r . . . . ~ . . ~ . (( . b 1 1I a * a . c 137
9.1 Field Test f'hilosophy Definition ~ . D * * I , . . ~ . I ‘ ~ . ~ I * . ~ ~ 137
9.2 Definition of Field Site Requirements . . r . . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I)r ~ ~ . ( ” 1 3 3

9.2.1 Original Site Management Structure . . II ~ . L * . (I . ~ ~ . ~ , 139
9.2.2 Revised Site Xanage._ment Structure . ~ ~ ~ , ~ * D ~ . . c I . * 143
xi
CONTEKTS (cont.)
9.3 Laboratory Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
9.3.1 Korth American Rockwell Field Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.3.2 Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation Field Site . . . 146
9.3.3 Kennedy and Manned Space Center Field Sites . . . . . . . . 146
10.0 SYSTCRI TESTIXG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.1 Computer-Contained Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
10.1.1 SUNRISE 38 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10.1.2 SUNRISE 69 Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
10.1.3 AURORA Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
10.1.4 SIXDIAL Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
10.1.5 Verification Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
10.1.6 AGC Monitor/Core Rope Simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
10.1.7 Digital Simulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
i0.1.8 Computer Restart Monitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.2 Hardware-Software Compatibility Testing in Support of Mission
Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.2.1 Specific Test Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.2.1.1 Command Module Prelaunch Alignment . . . . . . . 154
10.2.1.2 Command Module Optical Program Tests . . . . . 154
10.2.1.3 Command and Lunar Module Alarm Tests . . . . . 155
10.2.1.4 Lunar Module Alignment Program Tests . . . . . . 156
10.2.1.5 Radar Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.2.1~ 6 Miscellaneous Command and Lunar Module Tests 158
10.2.2 Compatibility Problems and Their Resolution . . . . . . . . 158
10.2.3 Milestones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
10.2.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
10.3 System Test Program Verification for Mission Programs . , . . 161
11.0 GROUND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT DEVELOPMENT . . . . . a . a . . . . . 163
11.1 BasicGoals , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
11.2 Equipment Evolution . . . . . . ~ , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
11.3 Optical Inertial Test Set Design Evolution . . . . . . e . . . . . . L . 164
11.4 Computer Subsystem Checkout Equipment Design Requirements 167
11.5 Optical Test Equipment . . . . . . . . . . 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . I . D L 169
xii