MISSION in CENTRAL CHINA

239 Pages·2017·10.22 MB·English

MISSION in CENTRAL CHINA

A SHORT HISTORY
of P.I.M.E. INSTITUTE
in HENAN and SHAANXI

Ticozzi Sergio,
Hong Kong 2014

1
(on the cover)

The Delegates of the 3rd PIME General Assembly (Hong Kong, 15/2 -7/3, 1934)

Standing from left: Sitting from left:

Fr. Luigi Chessa, Delegate of Kaifeng Msgr. Domenico Grassi, Superior of Bezwada
Fr. Michele Lucci, Delegate of Weihui Bp. Enrico Valtorta, Vicar ap. of Hong Kong
Fr. Giuseppe Lombardi, Delegate of Bp. Flaminio Belotti, Vicar ap. of Nanyang
Hanzhong Bp. Dionigi Vismara, Bishop of Hyderabad
Fr. Ugo Sordo, Delegate of Nanyang Bp. Vittorio E. Sagrada, Vicar ap. of Toungoo
Fr. Sperandio Villa, China Superior regional Bp. Giuseppe N. Tacconi, Vicar ap. of Kaifeng
Fr. Giovanni Piatti, Procurator general Bp. Martino Chiolino, Vicar ap. of Weihui
Fr. Paolo Manna, Superior general Bp. Giovanni B. Anselmo, Bishop of Dinajpur
Fr. Isidoro Pagani, Delegate of Italy Bp. Erminio Bonetta, Prefect ap. of Kengtung
Fr. Paolo Pastori, Delegate of Italy
Fr. Giovanni B. Tragella, assistant general
Fr. Luigi Risso, Vicar general
Fr. Umberto Colli, superior regional of India
Fr. Alfredo Lanfranconi, Delegate of
Toungoo
Fr. Clemente Vismara, Delegate ofKengtung
Fr. Valentino Belgeri, Delegate of Dinajpur
Fr. Antonio Riganti, Delegate of Hong Kong

2
INDEX:

1 1. Destination: Henan (1869-1881)

25 2. Division of the Henan Vicariate and the Boxers’ Uprising (1881-1901)

49 3. Henan Missions through revolutions and changes (1902-1924)

79 4. Henan Vicariates and the country’s trials (1924-1946)

125 5. Henan Dioceses under the Communist Government (since 1946)

153 6. A Short History of PIME in Hanzhong (Shaanxi)

197 Appendix 1: Geographical Maps
202 Appendix 2: Short Chronology
204 Appendix 3: List of PIME Members who worked in Henan and Shaanxi
213 Appendix 4: Chinese names of Chinese people and places
218 Bibliography

3
1

DESTINATION: HENAN
(1869-1881)

Arrival of the first members of the Lombard Seminary

On March 19, 1870, the first four members of the Lombard or Milan Seminary for Foreign Missions1
could at last set foot in Henan province, the Apostolic Vicariate, whose care the Holy See has entrusted
to them with the decree of June 28, 1869.
They were Frs. Angelo Cattaneo, Vito Ruvolo-Ospedale and Gabriele Cicalese, led by Mgr.
Simeone Volonteri, as pro-vicar apostolic. They
had left Hong Kong on February 8 on an American
ship that had brought them to Shanghai. From
there, they had sailed the Yangzi River up to
Hankou, where they had stopped some days at the
Procure of the Franciscans. Then, accompanied by
three Catholics who had purposely come from
Jinjiagang (former Kin-Kia-Kang 2), after 25 days
of sailing against current in the hands of the crew
of two river boats, they had reached Laohekou, in
Hubei. They could cross the boundary into Henan
on St. Joseph’s day. But the journey was not yet
over. On carts, they hastened towards Jinjiagang,
at the outskirt of the city of Nanyang, the
provincial capital (at 12 li = ca. 7 km). Great was their joy when, approaching Nanyang, they saw the
Chinese clergy and other Christians coming to welcome and accompany them to their final destination.
They were tired but ready to undertake the work of the evangelization of the whole province. Their
entry in Jinjiagang was humble but joyful. First, they rushed into the chapel to prostrate themselves in
front of the Blessed Sacrament and of the altar of the Virgin Mary, in order to give thanks to God for
arriving safe and sound to their Mission. Then, they gathered together into a large room, where they met
all the faithful who came to greet them according to the Chinese custom.3

1 See Box, on the following page.
2 The present Jinjiagang, or Jin-jia-gang, previously written Kin-Kia-Kang (“the hill of the Jin family”), following the local
pronunciation, is at present absorbed into the city of Nanyang, which is registering a large expansion.
3 According to the diary of Fr. Cattaneo, quoted in G. MELONI, He-Ngan-Ie per le strade della Cina, Mons. Angelo Cattaneo,
vicario apostolico del Honan sud (Merate, Bertoni Editore, 1990), p. 30.
4
The Lombard Institute for Foreign Missions

The concern for world evangelization has never disappeared in Europe: it was kept up
not only by members of the great religious congregations or orders, which were sent to work
in mission territories either by the Portuguese authorities under the Padroado system or by
the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of Faith (or Propaganda, now Congregation
for the Evangelization of Peoples 4), but also by the charismatic spirit spread by the Society
for the Propagation of Faith, officially founded in Lyon by Pauline Marie Jaricot (1799-1862)
on May 3,1822. Such a context strengthened the awareness of the responsibility of the Holy
See and of the Local Churches, diocesan bishops and priests, for the evangelization of the
whole world. In fact, such an atmosphere pushed the ancient religious congregations to a
greater opening to the missions, as well as the diocesan bishops to set up new missionary
institutions, more specifically, colleges or seminaries for training clergy who wanted to go
to work in foreign missions, according to the model of Paris Missionary Society.
The possibility to carry out this project in the Lombard Province, where many people
already shared such a desire and perspective, was given by the Holy Father Pius IX. The
French missionary bishop of Madurai, India, Mgr. Jean-Felix Luquet (1810-1858), who,
passing through Milan on his way back to France towards the end of 1847, reported to the
Archbishop of the city, Carlo Borromeo Romilli (1795-1859) and all the other Lombard
Bishops the Pope’s desire to set up in Lombardy a seminary for foreign missions. Fr. Angelo
Ramazzotti (1800-1861), then Superior of the Oblates in Rho and soon afterwards
appointed Bishop of Pavia, who was present at the meeting, considered the proposal as his
own and committed himself to make it a reality. Fr. Ramazzotti put at disposal his own house
in Saronno, and, after his episcopal ordination (held in Rome on June 30, 1850), he
gathered the first five priests with the Director, Rev. Giuseppe Marinoni (1810-1891), on
July 30, in order to officially inaugurate the Lombard Seminary for Foreign Mission on the
following day.
On December 1, 1850, all the Bishops of Lombardy issued the official document to
canonically establish it, as expression of the missionary spirit of their Churches. Rev.
Marinoni made use of his most active and intelligent commitment to develop the institution
in the best way. After a while, since the house in Saronno became inadequate to the needs,
the Seminary moved to Milan at the St. Calocero’s Church, to which a building was added,
capable to host a good number of candidates.

4 The Sacred Congregation for Propagation of Faith (SCPF, or Propaganda Fide, now Congregation for the Evangelization of
Peoples, CEP) was founded by Pope Gregory XV on June 22, 1622, by restructuring previous committees. Its aim was not only
to better organize and coordinate the missionary work in the new world countries, but also to overcome the serious obstacles
created by the control and by the privileges of Spain and Portugal kept on mission territories. Their ‘padroado’ (patronage), at
the beginning, helped indeed the evangelization enterprise, but later it became a source of heavy difficulties hindering it.
The SCPF founded its Procure in charge of the Missions in the Far East at Guangzhou in 1705 through the Pontifical Legate
in China, Mgr. Charles Maillard de Tournon (1668-1710). Later, it moved between Guangzhou and Macao, according to the
political climate and convenience. In 1842, the Procure was brought from Macao to Hong Kong, where it remained until 1922,
when the Apostolic Delegation of the Holy See was established in China, with Mgr. Celso Costantini (1876-1958) as its first
Delegate.
5
A decree from Milan Archbishop, dated April 26,1851, gave to the Seminary the new
juridical name, the “Lombard Institute for Foreign Missions”.5

The first missionary expedition, formed by five priests and two brother- cooperators,
under the leadership of the Apostolic Prefect Fr. Paolo Reina (1825-1861), received the
Crucifix on March 16, 1852, and departed for Papua New Guinea, to take up the care of the
Melanesia-Micronesia Mission. Unfortunately, after about three years of unbearable
sufferings, caused by sickness, shortage of food and medicines (Bro. Giuseppe Corti died
on March 17,1855, at 38 years of age, Fr. Carlo Salerio (1827-1870) was forced to return
to Italy by illness), opposition and persecution by local people (Fr. Giovanni Mazzucconi
(1826-1855) was murdered with the whole crew of the ship La Gazelle on September
25,1855), and fruitless apostolic efforts, the missionaries were forced to abandon the
Mission. They withdrew to Sydney, Australia, and later, leaving there Fr. Angelo Ambrosoli
(1824-1851), they went to Manila and to Labuan, in Borneo. The Holy see, at last, assigned
the remaining members, namely Frs. Paolo Reina and Timoleone Raimondi (1827-1894)
with Bro. Luigi Tacchini (1825-1870), to the Mission in Hong Kong, then a British Colony,
where they arrived in 1858.
In the meantime, the Institute registered further missionary expeditions: in 1854, it
sent its first missionaries to India: in Andra Pradesh and Bengal, which then included also
the present Bangla Desh. In 1858, there was the expedition of its first missionaries to Burma
(present Myanmar) and in 1869 the expedition to Henan, China.

Environment and Conditions of the apostolic work

The missionaries were only a few in number. Mgr. Volonteri reported just seven days after the
arrival that “Fr. Mouilleron, the only European missionary who remains here, is working for almost one
year in the farthest Eastern part of the province at a distance of about 300 miles and I have met two of the
Chinese priests, and the third one who came few days later… They, all three, seem to be good subjects,
but under the Lazarists, had to make the vows for joining their Congregation, and obviously have the
heart divided…” 6

The new missionaries faced very poor and uncomfortable conditions: the chapel, which was a
building made of clay and straw, capable of about fifty people, was surrounded by other buildings of the
same kind, used as residence, orphanage and seminary. However, their enthusiastic eyes were filled with
the appealing vision of the vast territory to evangelize and of the immense amount of work to do.

Here, three ugly walls made of clay and straw joined together - Fr. Cattaneo described his room
on the following May 18, - and a forth one made of paper, fixed by myself when I arrived in this residence,
constitute my nice room. In the right corner, there is a small desk, where day and night I study Chinese.
On the left corner, there is a bed, which consists not of wool and mattress but of three hard boards with a
mat and a blanket. In the middle of a wall, there is a large window with old type of glasses. The winds,

5 The Lombard Seminary for Foreign Mission was known also as Milan Seminary or St. Calocero’s Seminary, since its
headquarters were in Milan at St. Calocero’s Church. Later, in 1926, by merging with the similar Pontifical Seminary of the
SS. Apostles Peter and Paul in Rome, it will become the Pontifical Institute for Foreign Mission, that is PIME (according to
the Latin acronym).
6 Volonteri > Card. Barnabò, 27-03-1870, in A-PIME, tit. 17, box 27, file 3, p. 1.
6
here quite strong, play through them in a wonderful way. It is really a pleasure; every three days I have
to fix it again. What makes it more pleasant is the company of mice, which, without asking any permit and
without bothering whether someone is resting, enter and exit, climb even on my head, a never ending
noise! Of this, Fr. Vito can be eyes- and ears-witness. Yet, I am very very happy, and unwilling to change
it for all the gold in the world! 7

China, or better the Chinese Empire, in which the Italian missionaries were starting their
evangelizing adventure, was then in difficult social and political conditions. The overspread dissatisfaction
of people was expressed in several rebellions, of which the most consistent and disturbing has been the
Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864), which aimed at establishing a “Heavenly Kingdom”, based upon justice
and equality. It had spread to and involved several provinces. The Qing Court was seen weak and corrupt,
and worse, totally submitted to the colonial arrogance of foreign powers, who were securing for
themselves unjust privileges, both economic and territorial. Their political leaders kept also boasting to
be the protectors of their compatriots engaged in the evangelization enterprise, as well as guarantors of
the rights of the Christian Churches. For the Catholic Church, there was the “French patronage”, made
official in ‘unequal treaties’, mainly in the 1860 Peking Convention, which obtained for the Church the
freedom of preaching and converting people everywhere in the Empire, the right of buying properties and
of being given back those which had been previously confiscated by local authorities. Consequently, the
Chinese officials and the common people found quite difficult to differentiate between missionaries and
foreign politicians and merchants. Therefore, all foreigners were pooled together and treated with an
unfavorable, if not hostile, attitude.

So the modern evangelization of the Chinese mainland was born with polluted roots: what
by the missionaries was considered a deserved and dutiful acknowledgement of the work they were
performing for the good of the people, the upper classes of China (civil servants, officials,
mandarins, gentry and intellectuals) considered it as a shameful imposition of foreign powers, on
the basis of ‘unequal treaties’, forced upon them. From it, came all the many difficulties Christian
Churches had to meet in China during the last 250 years! 8

Moreover, given the inefficiency of the local civil and military authorities to keep control and
order, many brigands and robbers, often joint in bands, took advantage of the situation and carried out all
kinds of abuses and crimes, especially in rural and isolated areas.

The Henan province, whose name means "South of the (Yellow) River", lies at the core of central
China with a surface of 165,140 km square, and a population which was then of about 30 million people.
It has been the rich agricultural heartland, since the beginning of the Chinese civilization with the Yanshao
and Longshan neolithic cultures in the fifth millennium BCE. In its boundaries, the Shang (or Yin) dynasty
gained control of some areas in the second millennium BCE (ca. XVI-XI cent.), followed by the Zhou
dynasty (XI cent.- 221 BCE), and by other successive dynasties that have chosen Luoyang or Kaifeng as
capitals. It has been the most densely populated area of China, and even today it ranks among the first
ones, reaching almost 100 million inhabitants.

7 Cattaneo > Superior, 17-05-870, in AG-PIME, tit. AME, box 23, file XXI, pp. 1015-1016, also briefly quoted in Antonio
LOZZA, Il Pacifico Stratega, Simeone Volonteri, vescovo missionario (PIME, Milano 1956), p. 36.
8 Piero GHEDDO, PIME 150 Anni di Missione,1850-2000 (EMI, Bologna, 2000), p. 598.
7
MAP OF HENAN Province

The Yellow River (Huang He), which first marks the boundaries between Henan and Shanxi
provinces, crosses the northern area of the former, and finally it divides it from Shandong. Before 1950,
the river frequently flooded out of its banks, turning rich fields into marshes and driving people away from
their home. In the early 1950 water-control construction with embankments, dams and dikes, was
undertaken to deal with the problem of flooding. Nowadays, due to scarcity of water, people have to face
the opposite problem for a proper irrigation of the land. But, in the meantime, the economy of the province
has diversified with a good progress of the industrial production, mainly textile, and of tourism, favored
by an improved net of highways, as well as by railway lines.

Nanyang basin lies south of the range of mountains, whose most famous peak is the Song Shan
(one of the traditional five sacred mountains of Chinese Buddhism, where the popular Xiaolin Temple
(the original center of the Buddhist Meditation Sect,9 with its homonymous martial art) is located. The
region is warm and moist enough to allow a good cultivation of rice.

It was precisely here that the first missionaries of the Milan Seminary started their evangelization
work. But, they were not the pioneers.

The previous presence of the Catholic Church in Henan

The presence of the Church in Henan goes back most probably to the early years of the Tang
dynasty (618-907). The evidence was given to Fr. Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) in 1605, who, some time
earlier, has taught the Christian doctrine and baptized a doctor from Henan, a certain Cui, who chose the
Christian name of Anthony. Moreover, the father, who was then in Beijing, one day received a visit of a
Jew minor official, named Ai Tian, who informed him about the presence of the Jews in China, mainly in
Zhejiang and in Henan. A dozen of their families were living in Kaifeng around a synagogue, which
possessed the five scrolls of the Pentateuch. The same man also informed him about the presence in
Kaifeng of “adorers of the cross”. In 1607, Fr Ricci sent a Chinese brother to verify the information: he
was confirmed about the fact of the existence of Jews and of several families who had remained Christian,
“the adorers of the cross”, until about the middle of the previous century and then gradually disappeared
or emigrated. They were probably Christians of the Eastern Syrian Church (in Chinese, the Luminous or

9 This sect is called in Chinese Chan, and in Japanese Zen.
8
Shining Religion, inappropriately called ‘Nestorian’10), descendants of members of this Church, which
officially started, according to the tradition, with the arrival in Xi’an of the Persian monk or bishop, Alopen
(Aluoben) in 635, as testified by the so-called ‘Nestorian Stele’.11
In the preceding centuries, delegations of Franciscan Friars also have visited and worked mainly
among Mongols (the first embassy from Pope Innocent IV left Europe in 1245 led by Friar John of Pian
di Carpine, + 1252), and among minority groups who then lived in the Chinese Empire. Their work has
been carried out especially during the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), but, it does not appear that they had
evangelized Henan. However, the presence of Christians, then called Yelikewen,12 has somehow continued
in Henan province, as well as Jiangxi, Gansu, Shaanxi, Tibet, Yunnan, Xinjiang, Fujian, Guangdong, etc.,
even with Chinese converts.13

With the new discoveries during the 15th and 16th centruies, the responsibility of the evangelization
of the ‘new world’ was divided between Spain and Portugal according to the ‘concessions’ of various
Popes, since the whole new world was considered belonging to them: namely, Eugene IV, Nicholas V
with his bull “Romanus Pontifex” (1454), Sixtus IV and his bull “Aeterni Regis”, (1481), Alexander VI’
with the bull “Inter Coetera” (1493). With the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the two Hispanic powers
agreed upon the boundaries of their control: so, China and the whole Orient were placed under the
Portuguese ‘padroado’ (patronage) with the right and duty to provide personnel and to administer the
whole missionary enterprise. Consequently, in January 1576, the whole Far East was constituted aa the
Diocese of Macao, then established as suffragan to Goa, India.

It was exactly from Macao that the Jesuits, and in particular Frs. Michele Ruggeri (1543-1607)
and Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) succeeded to enter China, to obtain the permit of residing and operating in
the Chinese Empire, first in Zhaoqing in 1583 and then in Beijing in 1601. And it was here, that Fr. Ricci
could make the first contacts with Kaifeng, as we have seen.
Later, in 1613, Fr. Giulio Aleni (1582-1649) could reach Kaifeng to visit the Jewish synagogue,
but he was not shown the scrolls of the Pentateuch. In 1623-24, Fr. Nicholas Trigault (1577-1628) took
up the residence in the city, but after a short time, discouraged by the lack of conversions, left for Shanxi.
He was succeeded by Fr. Lazzaro Cattaneo (1560-1640).
Other Jesuits kept visiting Kaifeng. Fr. Rodrigo Figueredo (1594-1642) worked there from 1629
to 1642, together with another Jesuit brother, staying in the residence opened by Fr. Francesco Sambiasi

10 J. Dauvillier explains the reason: it was the fault of "the Jacobites and Byzantins who judged and called these Christian
propagators of faith as ‘Nestorian’, and the Latin travelers of the Middle Ages have followed in making use of this name; but
Nestorius has never been the patriarch of their Church... The name of Chaldeans is the most proper to define them, in a time,
when the center of their Church was Seleucia-Ctesifont and, later, Bagdad. People can also make use of the name of ‘Eastern
Syrians’ [Church of the Orient], to distinguish them from the ‘Western Syrians’ who are the subjects of the Syrian Patriarch of
Antioch" (DAUVILLIER Jean, "Les provinces chaldéennes de l'extérieur”, in Mèlanges Cavallera, Toulouse, Institute
Catholique, 1948, pp. 261-262, reported by J. THEVENET, "La Chiesa in Mongolia", in Asia News, supplement to Mondo e
Missione, n. 1, January 2001, p.25).
11 The ‘Nestorian Stele’ was found in 1625, while digging near Xi’an: its inscription in Chinese, with some lines of names in
Syriac, reports a summary of the Christian doctrine and of the history of the arrival and spreading of the Christian Religion
(called in Chinese Jingjiao, 景教, the Shining Church or Luminous Religion) in the Chinese Tang Empire. The stele was
erected in 781 between Zhouzhi and the capital Chang’an in order to commemorate the victory upon the rebellion of An Lushan
in 763 due also to the merit of Christian generals. At present, the Stele is kept among the large collection of stone monuments
in the Beilin Museum in Xi’an.
12 From the Mongol Arka’un, probably derived from the Syriac Arkun, Archdeacon; according to Chen Yuan it is a Mongol
term derived from the Arabic word ‘Arekhawun’ which means ‘who believes in the good news’.
13 See A.C. MOULE, in Christians in China before the year 1550 (London, 1930), pp. 224-225.
9
(1582-1649) in 1628, when he stopped there on his way to Shanxi, guest of a Catholic merchant. Fr.
Figueredo succeeded in forming a community of about a thousand Catholics and to build a beautiful
church with a residence.
In 1641, Henan province had a dozen of Christian communities, around Kaifeng and Guide
(present Shangqiu), with few thousands of faithful spread also in other villages. Unfortunately, in 1642
the whole city of Kaifeng with the surrounding area was destroyed by floods of the Yellow River. In the
waters not only churches and communities were swept away, but also Fr. Figueredo himself was drowned
to death.

In the meantime, the Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of Faith (Propaganda Fide, SCPF),
meeting with increasing troubles and difficulties with the Portuguese ‘padroado’, tried its best to get rid
of it by creating ecclesiastical territories under its direct jurisdiction. For this intent, in 1690 it separated
from Macao and established Beijing and Nanjing as autonomous dioceses. The latter, also called Jiangnan
(“south of the river”), included the province of Henan.

From 1644 on, Fr. Christian Herdtricht (1624-1684) was working in Kaifeng. With the help of
Lady Candida Xu (1607-1680), the grand-daughter of the famous convert and friend of Fr. Matteo Ricci,
Paul Xu Guangqi (1562-1633), and of her son, Basilius Xu Zuangzeng (1627-1692) sent to Kaifeng as
magistrate, he could rebuild the church. He worked here, with ups and down, until his death in 1684,
opening new Christian communities in several places.
In 1698 another Jesuit Fr. Giovanni Gozzani (1659-1732), arrived in Henan and took up the care
of the whole province until the 1724 persecution. His apostolic zeal formed Christian communities in
Guide (present Shangqiu), in Fengqiao (near Luyi, in 1720), and north of the Yellow River in the area of
Zhangde (present Anyang). Meanwhile, another itinerant Jesuit, Fr. John Domenge (1666-1735) had
started Christian communities in Jinjiagang in 1713, in Queshan and Hanzhuang in 1714.
Moreover, in 1712, Henan registered the presence of two French Jesuit fathers, John Baptist Regis
(1663-1738) and Joseph De Mailla (1669-1748), who, in charge of drawing geographical maps by the
order of the emperor Kangxi, could buy a residence both in Nanyang and in Kaifeng. At the beginning of
the 17th century, Christian communities were flourishing around Kaifeng, Guide, Jinjiagang, Luyi, Fugou,
Qixian and Zhangde.

In May 1759, Mgr. Godfred De Laimbeckhoven, the bishop of Nanjing (or Jiangnan) from 1752
to 1787, who, ordained bishop in Macau on July 20, 1755, in August of the following year paid a difficult
visit to the Christians around Nanyang, took up residence at Fengqiao, Luyi, since he was prevented to
reach his see. In his diary, he left this note:
At the end, I decided to reside in Henan province, which too was entrusted to my care and had
1,500 Christians. I settled in a place near Jiangnan, at Luyi, with the purpose to be able from there to
give encouragement and support to my desolated church.14

14 Quoted by A.CROTTI, Noè Tacconi. 1873-1942, il primo vescovo di Kaifeng (Bologna, EMI, 1999), p. 55. Jospeh Krahl, in
China Missions in Crisis, Bishop Lambeckhoven and His times, 1738-1787 (GrgeorianUNiversity Press, 1964) writes:
“Christians were most numerous in Luyi and Kihsien. Laimbeckhoven, with the help of a Chinese priest,cared for all the centers
in Eastern Honan. There was a geratdeal of difference teween the Christians of the two parts of Honan. Those of the Eastern
aprt possessed all the good qualities of the Christians, docility, fervor, faithfulness in observing the laws of God and the precept
of the church. Those of the western part, with the exception of a few dispersed centers, were obstinate and stubborn people
who were not much concerned for the law and precepts, nor for their pastors who came fro four months each year from the
neighboring province of Hukwang, and who ususally collecte more thorns than fruit.The northern part of the province had but
10