Mirʾāt al-quds

394 Pages·2011·28.64 MB·English

Mirʾāt al-quds (Mirror of Holiness):
A Life of Christ for Emperor Akbar
Studies and Sources
in Islamic Art and Architecture
Supplements to Muqarnas
Sponsored by the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture at Harvard University
and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
Series Editor:
Gülru Necipoğlu
Managing Editor:
Karen A. Leal
VOLUME XII
Mirʾāt al-quds (Mirror of Holiness):
A Life of Christ for Emperor Akbar
A Commentary on Father Jerome Xavier’s Text and
the Miniatures of Cleveland Museum of Art,
Acc. No. 2005.145
By
Pedro Moura Carvalho
With a Translation and Annotated Transcription of the Text by
Wheeler M. Thackston
LEIDEN • BOSTON
2012
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Carvalho, Pedro de Moura.
Mir’at al-quds (Mirror of holiness) : a life of Christ for Emperor Akbar : a commentary on Father Jerome Xavier’s text and the
miniatures of Cleveland Museum of Art, Acc. no. 2005.145 / by Pedro Moura Carvalho ; with a translation and annotated transcription
of the text by Wheeler M. Thackston.
p. cm. — (Studies and sources in Islamic art and architecture, ISSN 0921-0326 ; v. 12)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-21149-0 (hardback : alk. paper)
1. Javier, Jerónimo, 1549-1617. Dastan-i Masih. 2. Jesus Christ—Biography. 3. Jesus Christ—Art. 4. Illumination of books and
manuscripts, Mogul. 5. Akbar, Emperor of Hindustan, 1542-1605. 6. Cleveland Museum of Art. I. Thackston, W. M. (Wheeler
McIntosh), 1944- II. Title. III. Title: Commentary on Father Jerome Xavier’s text and the miniatures of Cleveland Museum of Art, Acc.
no. 2005.145.
BT301.3.C38 2011
232.9’0109545609032—dc23
2011026110
ISSN 0732-2992
ISBN 978 90 04 21149 0 (hardback)
ISBN 978 90 04 21574 0 (e-book)
Copyright 2012 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Global Oriental, Hotei Publishing,
IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, and VSP.
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Para os meus Pais

CONTENTS
Preface and Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
INTRODUCTION
Father Jerome Xavier and the Third Jesuit Mission to the Mughal Court: Historical, Political, and
Religious Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
CHAPTER ONE
A LIFE OF FATHER JEROME XAVIER
1.1. Background and literary production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2. A bio-bibliographical survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3. Early and contemporary Lives of Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
CHAPTER TWO
THE MIRʾĀT AL-QUDS IN CONTEXT
2.1. A bibliographical survey of the Mirʾāt al-quds and its reception in European literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2. Identifying the literary sources used by Father Jerome Xavier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.1. The Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.2. The New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.3. The apocryphal gospels: On the lives of Mary and Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.4. Abgar’s letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.5. Religious literature and other historical texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3. An interpretation of the Abgar episode and some further considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1. Additional reflections on the Mirʾāt al-quds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4. The complexities of writing about Christ for a Muslim audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.1. Disputes and compromises: The role of Mary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5. Copying the Mirʾāt al-quds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
CHAPTER THREE
VISUALIZING THE MIRʾĀT AL-QUDS:
CLEVELAND MUSEUM OF ART, ACC. NO. 2005.145
3.1. The miniatures of the Cleveland Mirʾāt al-quds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2. The missing miniatures and their themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3. Salim as the patron of the Cleveland Mirʾāt al-quds illustrated at Allahabad (1602–4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.4. A brief survey of the life of Christ in Islamic painting and literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
viii contents
CHAPTER FOUR
CATALOGUE OF THE CLEVELAND MIRʾĀT AL-QUDS, ACC. NO. 2005.145
4.1. Cat. Nos. I–XXVII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.2. A list of the miniatures, with corresponding pages in Father Jerome’s text (in the Cleveland copy
of the Mirʾāt al-quds) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
CHAPTER FIVE
A TRANSLATION OF THE MIRʾĀT AL-QUDS BY W. M. THACKSTON,
WITH NOTES BY P. MOURA CARVALHO
5.1. Translator’s Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.2. Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.3. Part One: Christ’s childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.4. Part Two: His miracles and teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.5. Part Three: His trials, tribulations, and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.6. Part Four: His Resurrection from the grave and Ascension into Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
CHAPTER SIX
AN ANNOTATED TRANSCRIPTION OF THE MIRʾĀT AL-QUDS
BY W. M. THACKSTON
6.1. Preamble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
6.2. Part One: Christ’s childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
6.3. Part Two: His miracles and teachings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.4. Part Three: His trials, tribulations, and death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
6.5. Part Four: His Resurrection from the grave and Ascension into Heaven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
APPENDIX I
Some Technical Aspects of the Cleveland Mirʾāt al-quds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
APPENDIX II
Order of Folios in the Cleveland Mirʾāt al-quds, by W. M. Thackston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
contents ix
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Emperor Akbar’s ecumenical approach to religion in This book would not have been possible without
general and his specific interest in Christianity were the vision of Gülru Necipoǧlu, Aga Khan Professor of
expressed in a number of ways during his long reign Islamic Art and Architecture and Director of the Aga
(1556–1605), the most important of which was perhaps Khan Program for Islamic Architecture (AKPIA) at
his commission of the Mirʾāt al-quds (Mirror of Holi- Harvard University. It was Gülru’s idea to extend my
ness) from the Jesuit missionary Jerome Xavier. Such initial fellowship at Harvard, giving me the opportunity
interest seems to have been unique, since no other to transform my shorter original project on the Cleve-
Muslim ruler is known to have ordered the writing of land manuscript into a deeper study of both the text
a comparable text. Father Jerome’s remarkable Persian and the miniatures. I am deeply grateful not only for
Life of Christ is heavily indebted to the Gospels and her time, many suggestions, and enthusiastic support,
reveals his close familiarity with the Vulgate Bible. but also for the funds provided by AKPIA to conduct
Indeed, from a religious perspective, it might have been research at the Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu
best to reproduce here the corresponding passages in (ARSI) in Rome, and for a trip to India and Lahore. In
the Douay-Rheims Bible, the standard translation of the addition to offering valuable comments that were cru-
Vulgate. However, the aim of the current study has been cial to the improvement of the text, Gülru made another
to translate and analyze Father Jerome’s Life of Christ vital contribution to this project when she suggested the
as a Persian text, not as a work of piety, and Father name of Wheeler M. Thackston as a possible translator
Jerome’s relative unfamiliarity with Persian inevita- of the Mirʾāt al-quds. He graciously accepted the chal-
bly takes him some way from the original Latin. Our lenge without hesitation. In addition to the translation,
intention has been to present Father Jerome’s Persian I am grateful for his notes involving non-Western lan-
as accurately as possible, even if it does not always read guages, the transcription, and the “Order of Folios” list
smoothly. Moreover, many of his other sources were (Appendix II). It was a privilege to work with Wheeler
originally translated from Latin into Portuguese, and and his prompt assistance in the clarification of numer-
only then into Persian, which clearly allowed space for ous religious, linguistic, social, and political issues dur-
what some would classify as gaffes, or simply poor judg- ing the eighteen months of my fellowship and the period
ment. Religion is a personal matter and what may be that followed was simply invaluable.
accurate for one reader may be simply untruthful for Karen Alexandra Leal had the immense task of
another. When identifying his Biblical and other reli- transforming my manuscript into something consis-
gious sources, a considerable space for interpretation tent and worthy of being published. I am indebted for
has been allowed, but when Father Jerome’s text varies her enormous patience and ability. Three other scholars
greatly from the original, or its contents are somehow were of great help: Milo Cleveland Beach provided me
conflicting or less consistent with it, this has been noted. with images of miniatures related to Salim’s patronage
I hope that readers with stricter religious views will not and made crucial comments on the miniatures of the
find too much reason to object to Father Jerome’s text Cleveland Mirʾāt al-quds; Peter S. Hawkins offered a
or to my own work. It should also be born in mind that Christian point of view on Father Jerome’s text; and
the Roman Catholic Father Jerome was a guest of one J. M. Rogers once again found time to comment and
of the most powerful Muslim rulers of all time and that suggest improvements in a text of mine.
both men understood the need to compromise for the I am grateful to Robert Skelton, for drawing my atten-
greater good. tion as early as 2004 to the manuscript under study here;
x preface and acknowledgements
Brendan Lynch, for providing me with images of its (Lahore Museum); Nasser D. Khalili and Nahla Nassar
miniatures long before its acquisition by the Cleveland (The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Lon-
Museum of Art; and Manijeh Bayani, for her kindness don); Ger Luijten and Rhea Sylvia Blok (Fondation Cus-
and friendship. This project would not have been pos- todia, Paris); Sonya Quintanilla (San Diego Museum of
sible without the full support of the Cleveland Museum Art); Joseph Shemtov (Free Library of Philadelphia);
of Art, which generously provided images of the entire Rachel Hasson (L. A. Mayer Museum for Islamic Art,
manuscript and allowed its publication. I would par- Jerusalem); and Teresa Freitas Morna (Museu de São
ticularly like to thank C. Griffith Mann, Anita Chung, Roque, Lisbon). I would also like to express my grati-
Bruce Christman, Stan Czuma, and Moyna Stanton. tude to Julia Bailey, Doris Behrens-Abouseif, Sheila
I am indebted to the private collectors who allowed R. Canby, Alan Chong, Father Nuno Gonçalves, S.J.,
the publication of their miniatures: Suzanne and Ger- Ebba Koch, Stephen Markel, Frédéric Moffet, Shaheen
ald Labiner; a private European collector who wishes Pirzada, Alberto Possiedi, David J. Roxburgh, Álvaro
to remain anonymous; and Catherine Glynn, who was Sequeira Pinto, James L. Wescoat Jr., and Gerhard Wolf.
also exceedingly generous with her time. My gratitude Finally, a very special word of gratitude goes to Edu-
is also extended to Father Francisco de Borja Medina, ardo Aguero, for allowing me to experience Rome as a
S.J., Father José Antonio Yoldi, S.J., and Mauro Brunello local, and to my generous host in Massachusetts, Wil-
for their assistance in the ARSI. liam R. Sargent.
For their time and support, I would like to thank
András J. Riedlmayer, Jeff Spurr, and Sharon C. Smith Pedro Moura Carvalho
(Documentation Center of the Aga Khan Program at March 2011
Harvard University); Iffat Ihtisham and Uzma Usmani