MINING IN AL-BAHA REGION, SOUTH-WESTERN SAUDI ARABIA IN ISLAMIC-ERA: THE ...

297 Pages·2014·16.29 MB·English

MINING IN AL-BAHA REGION,
SOUTH-WESTERN SAUDI ARABIA
IN ISLAMIC-ERA: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF ASHAM

Abdullah Ali Abadi Al-Zahrani

PhD

UNIVERSITY OF YORK
ARCHAEOLOGY

MARCH 2014
Abstract
During the early Islamic empire, gold and silver were necessary for minting coins for the
single currency of the Caliphate to facilitate trade from the western Mediterranean to
eastern Persia. Iron, copper and tin were also necessary to equip the armies needed to
defend and expand the empire, as well as for construction and domestic use. Although
people have focused on the Arab-Islamic expansion in terms of military, religious and
trade aspects, the internal production of the state has been largely neglected (i.e. mining
and making things, the physical basis of the civilization). Thus, studying mining
settlements as a model of internal production settlements is necessary to enrich our
understanding of mining activity and its role in Islamic civilization and the medieval
world.
The importance of this study lies in studying the characteristics of the mining landscape in
the region of Al-Baha, by analysing the mining activities taking place at the mining
settlement of Asham, one of the most famous mining settlements mentioned by several
classical Arab writers. These mining sites were surveyed generally and the mining tools
examined. After completing the general survey, Asham settlement was surveyed
intensively and excavated with six archaeological trenches to study the stratigraphy of the
settlement in order to present an overview of the successive occupation levels and to
expose more mining evidence. Materials recovered include over 1112 pieces of pounders
and grinders, and 2153 fragments of pottery, soapstone and glass.
The study of the mining landscape in Al-Baha region indicates that there were at least three
metals mined there during the Islamic era: copper, gold and silver. These metals were
processed in three patterns of settlements of different compositions and functions with
evidence of state supervision and integration with regional and international trade routes.
The research critically analysed the classical Arab-Islamic narratives with regard to the
archaeological evidence of tools and facilities.
The evidence confirms the extensive scale of mining activities in Al-Baha and its
importance to the broader Arab-Islamic world. Rudimentary patterns of mining settlement
were overhauled with extensive investment and state involvement during the classical
Islamic civilization (c. 630-1100 CE), in the context of the great fillip Arabian trade
received under the Umayyad and early Abbasid Caliphates which enabled full and stable
exploitation of the natural factors amenable to mining in Al-Baha. The decline of the
mining settlements was related to the political disintegration of the Abbasid Caliphate and
the rise of a series of Turkic dynasties from the Seljuks onwards, reflected in the fact that
the natural conditions still facilitate modern mining in the region, which poses a great
threat to the important archaeological remains.

II
Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................................. II
List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... VI
List of Tables....................................................................................................................... IX
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... X
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... XII
Declaration ........................................................................................................................ XIII
Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................ 14
1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 14
1.2 The importance of mining .......................................................................................... 17
1.3 The aim and objectives............................................................................................... 27
1.4 The study area and Asham as a model mining settlement ......................................... 28
1.5 The general methodology of study ............................................................................. 29
1.6 Chapter structure and outline ..................................................................................... 30
1.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 30
Chapter 2: Review of Mining Studies in Saudi Arabia ........................................................ 32
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 32
2.2 Classical Arabic sources ............................................................................................ 33
2.3 Western travellers....................................................................................................... 39
2.4 Contemporary Arab writers ....................................................................................... 42
2.5 Surveys of the Deputy Ministry for Minerals and Resources (DMMR) .................... 44
2.6 Comprehensive Archaeological Survey in the KSA .................................................. 48
2.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 57
Chapter 3: Background of al-Baha Region .......................................................................... 59
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 59
3.2 Geology and mineralogy ............................................................................................ 59
3.3 Geography .................................................................................................................. 65
3.3.1 Surface features ................................................................................................... 67
3.3.2 Population and activities ..................................................................................... 75
3.3.3 Ancient trading routes ......................................................................................... 78
3.3.4 Folk commercial marketplaces ........................................................................... 79
3.4 History ........................................................................................................................ 83
3.4.1 The Prophetic Era (571-632 CE/53 BH-11 AH) ................................................. 84
3.4.2 The Pious Caliphate (632-660 CE/11-40 AH) .................................................... 84
3.4.3 The Umayyad Period (660-750 CE/40-132 AH) ................................................ 85
3.4.4 The Abbasid Period (750-869 CE/132-256 AH) ................................................ 86
3.4.5 The Ottoman Period (1299-1923 CE/693-1341 AH) .......................................... 88
3.4.6 The Saudi Era (1744 CE/1157 AH to present).................................................... 90
3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 92
Chapter 4: Al-Baha Research History and Mining Sites Survey ......................................... 95
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 95
4.2 Research history ......................................................................................................... 95
4.2.1 SCTA explorations and interdisciplinary research of non-mining sites ............. 95
4.2.2 SCTA mining and mining settlements surveys ................................................... 96
4.3 Current fieldwork of mining sites in al-Baha region ................................................. 98
4.3.1 Desktop survey of the SCTA’s paper record ...................................................... 98
4.3.2 General survey of mining sites .......................................................................... 101
4.5 Mining evidence ....................................................................................................... 117
4.5.1 Mines and their forms ....................................................................................... 117
4.5.2 Mining settlements and their patterns ............................................................... 118
4.5.3 Tools .................................................................................................................. 122
4.5.4 Furnaces ............................................................................................................ 123
III
4.5.5 Slag .................................................................................................................... 124
4.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 125
Chapter 5: The Settlement of Asham ................................................................................. 129
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 129
5.2 Site background ........................................................................................................ 129
5.2.1 Location and natural factors .............................................................................. 129
5.2.2 Geographical characteristics ............................................................................. 130
5.2.3 Population and governors .................................................................................. 132
5.2.4 Islamic inscriptions ........................................................................................... 132
5.2.5 Famous neighbouring Islamic sites ................................................................... 133
5.3 Research history ....................................................................................................... 135
5.3.1 SCTA explorations ............................................................................................ 135
5.3.2 Specialized researches ....................................................................................... 136
5.4 Fieldwork in Asham and Masodah .......................................................................... 137
5.4.1 Methodology ..................................................................................................... 138
5.4.2 Intensive archaeological survey ........................................................................ 144
5.4.3 Surveyed objects ............................................................................................... 154
5.5. Excavations in Asham ............................................................................................. 164
5.5.1 ASH1 ................................................................................................................. 165
5.5.2 ASH2 ................................................................................................................. 169
5.5.3 ASH3 ................................................................................................................. 173
5.5.4 ASH4 ................................................................................................................. 175
5.6 Excavations in Masodah .......................................................................................... 181
5.6.1 MAS1 ................................................................................................................ 181
5.6.2 MAS2 ................................................................................................................ 185
5.7 Trenches collections ................................................................................................. 189
5.7.1 Stone tools ......................................................................................................... 189
5.7.2 Unglazed pottery ............................................................................................... 190
5.7.3. Glazed pottery .................................................................................................. 195
5.7.4. Soapstone wares ............................................................................................... 201
5.7.5 Glassware .......................................................................................................... 201
5.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 203
Chapter 6: Discussion ........................................................................................................ 206
6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 206
6.2 Mining furnaces and tools in the internal production places ................................... 206
6.2.1 Furnace types .................................................................................................... 210
6.2.2 Mining tools ...................................................................................................... 213
6.2.3 Wares................................................................................................................. 217
6.3 The role of Asham settlement in the development of regional mining .................... 222
6.3.1 Tombstones of Asham....................................................................................... 223
6.3.2 Mineral ores and natural factors ........................................................................ 224
6.3.3 Trade routes, local markets and marine ports ................................................... 226
6.4 Asham as an early Islamic city and its non-mining finds ........................................ 228
6.4.1 Unglazed pottery ............................................................................................... 230
6.4.2 Glazed pottery ................................................................................................... 231
6.4.3 Glassware .......................................................................................................... 234
6.5 Distribution of mining settlements and relationship with non-mining sites ............ 235
6.5.1 Mining sites in the highland (al-Sarat) zone ..................................................... 237
6.5.2 Mining sites in the lowland (Tihama) zone....................................................... 239
6.6 Comparative study of al-Baha mining sites with other mining sites in Arabia ....... 241
6.6.1 Mining sites in the KSA .................................................................................... 241
6.6.2 Mining in neighbouring areas of the KSA ........................................................ 248
6.7 General discussion and conclusion .......................................................................... 255
Chapter 7: Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 260
IV
7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 260
7.2 Landscape setting ..................................................................................................... 261
7.3 Form of associated settlements ................................................................................ 263
7.4 Form of mining and other activities ......................................................................... 264
7.5 Social context and its implications ........................................................................... 266
7.6 Conclusion, future directions and challenges........................................................... 267
Appendix 1: Non-mining sites in al-Baha region (SCTA survey) ..................................... 270
Survey of the Southern Ancient Trade Route ................................................................ 270
Appendix 2: Form of recording a mining site .................................................................... 271
Appendix 3: Form of excavation and artefacts record ....................................................... 272
Appendix 4: Studied samples of unglazed pottery (surface) ............................................. 274
Appendix 5: Studied samples of glazed pottery (surface) ................................................. 275
Appendix 6: Studied samples of glass (surface) ................................................................ 276
Appendix 7: Distribution of artefacts for ASH1 ................................................................ 277
Appendix 8: Distribution of artefacts for ASH2 ................................................................ 278
Appendix 9: Distribution of artefacts for ASH3 ................................................................ 279
Appendix 10: Distribution of artefacts for ASH4 .............................................................. 280
Appendix 11: Distribution of artefacts for MAS1 ............................................................. 281
Appendix 12: Distribution of artefacts for MAS2 ............................................................. 282
Appendix 13: Studied samples of unglazed pottery (Trenches) ........................................ 283
Appendix 14: Studied samples of glazed pottery (Trenches) ............................................ 285
Appendix 15: Studied samples of soapstone (Trenches) ................................................... 287
Appendix 16: Studied samples of glass (Trenches) ........................................................... 288
Appendix 17: Archaeological sites used in comparative study ......................................... 289
List of Abbreviations.......................................................................................................... 290
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................... 291

V
List of Figures
Figure ‎1.1: The Growth of Cities and Trade in the Islamic World, 632-750 CE................. 21
Figure ‎1.2: Umayyad dinar, 92 AH/ 711 CE ....................................................................... 22
Figure ‎1.3: Map of the KSA showing the study area and Asham settlement ...................... 29
Figure ‎2.1: Map of mines recorded in the KSA by DAMMR ............................................. 45
Figure ‎2.2: Early archaeologists’ mission in the KSA (SCTA archive). ............................. 49
Figure ‎2.3: Cartographic division of the KSA ..................................................................... 50
Figure ‎2.4: Distribution of archaeological sites in the KSA ................................................ 51
Figure ‎3.1: General geology of Al-Baha region south-west of Saudi Arabia ...................... 60
Figure ‎3.2: The most important mineralization sites in Bidah Valley north east of al-Baha
.............................................................................................................................................. 63
Figure ‎3.3: Mineral ores sites in the south-west of the KSA ............................................... 64
Figure ‎3.4: Location of al-Baha region ................................................................................ 66
Figure ‎3.5: Map of al-Baha region showing the major cities in the region (provinces) ...... 69
Figure ‎3.6: The modern city of al-Baha ............................................................................... 70
Figure ‎3.7: Overlooking Tihama from al-Sarat.................................................................... 71
Figure ‎3.8: Average minimum and maximum temperatures in al-Baha region during the
last 28 years .......................................................................................................................... 72
Figure ‎3.9: Average rainfall by month during the last 28 years (PME, al-Baha Station,
2011) .................................................................................................................................... 74
Figure ‎3.10: Family tree of Gamed and Zahrani .................................................................. 76
Figure ‎3.11: Distribution of local markets in Arabia continuing from the pre-Islamic era . 80
Figure ‎4.1: Proportion of mines and mining settlements in the KSA according the desktop
survey ................................................................................................................................. 101
Figure ‎4.2: The two surveyed zones in al-Baha region (al-Sarat and Tihama) ................. 102
Figure ‎4.3: Mines and settlements recoded by SCTA and by this study (AB) .................. 106
Figure ‎4.4: Al-Kesimah settlement .................................................................................... 107
Figure ‎4.5: Al-Haqah settlement ........................................................................................ 110
Figure ‎4.6: Al-Safer mine .................................................................................................. 111
Figure ‎4.7: Al-Khaljah mine .............................................................................................. 112
Figure ‎4.8: Al-Mamalah settlement ................................................................................... 113
Figure ‎4.9: Remains of al-Asda settlement ........................................................................ 116
Figure ‎4.10: Surveyed mines and patterns of mining settlements ..................................... 119
Figure ‎4.11: A model of mining settlements - Pattern A (Thrad settlement, al-Sarat zone)
............................................................................................................................................ 120
Figure ‎4.12: A model of mining settlements - Pattern B (al-Haqah settlement, al-Sarat
zone) ................................................................................................................................... 121
Figure ‎4.13: A model of mining settlements; Pattern C (al-Asda settlement, Tihama zone)
............................................................................................................................................ 122
Figure ‎4.14: Slag heaps in a mining settlement (al-Haqah site, al-Sarat zone) ................. 125
Figure ‎5.1: Location of Asham and Masodah .................................................................... 131
Figure ‎5.2: Map showing famous neighbouring Islamic sites (Hobash market, al-Siryan
and Athar)........................................................................................................................... 133
Figure ‎5.3: The fieldwork in Asham .................................................................................. 139
Figure ‎5.4: The fieldwork in Masodah ............................................................................... 139
Figure ‎5.5: General view of Asham ................................................................................... 144
Figure ‎5.6: Satellite image for Asham, CZ: commercial zone, GZ: graveyard zone ......... 145
Figure ‎5.7: General views of Asham mine and mining pits ............................................... 150
Figure ‎5.8: A general view of Masodah ............................................................................. 150
Figure ‎5.9: Satellite image for Masodah village ................................................................ 153
Figure ‎5.10: Surveyed pounders from Asham and Masodah ............................................. 154
Figure ‎5.11 : Four surveyed types of grinder from Asham and Masodah ......................... 156
VI
Figure ‎5.12: Drawings of some studied samples of unglazed pottery ............................... 158
Figure ‎5.13: Photos of some studied samples of unglazed pottery .................................... 159
Figure ‎5.14: Drawings of some studied samples of glazed pottery ................................... 161
Figure ‎5.15: Photos of some studied samples of glazed pottery ........................................ 162
Figure ‎5.16: Drawings of some studied samples of glass fragments from Asham surfaces
............................................................................................................................................ 163
Figure ‎5.17: Photos of some samples of glass fragments from Asham surfaces ............... 163
Figure ‎5.18: Locations of trenches in Asham .................................................................... 165
Figure ‎5.19: ASH1 ............................................................................................................. 167
Figure ‎5.20: Number of objects by type in each layer ....................................................... 168
Figure ‎5.21: Sketch of south side of ASH1........................................................................ 168
Figure ‎5.22: Sketch of east side of ASH2 .......................................................................... 171
Figure ‎5.23: Number of objects in each layer to ASH2 ..................................................... 171
Figure ‎5.24: ASH2 ............................................................................................................. 172
Figure ‎5.25: Sketch of ASH3 ............................................................................................. 174
Figure ‎5.26: Number of objects by type in each layer to ASH3 ........................................ 174
Figure ‎5.27: ASH3 ............................................................................................................. 175
Figure ‎5.28: Sketch of east side of ASH4 .......................................................................... 178
Figure ‎5.29: Number of objects by type in each layer of ASH4 ........................................ 178
Figure ‎5.30: ASH4 general view ........................................................................................ 179
Figure ‎5.31: ASH4 and some excavated tools ................................................................... 180
Figure ‎5.32: Locations of trenches in Masodah ................................................................. 181
Figure ‎5.33: Sketch of east side of MAS1 ......................................................................... 183
Figure ‎5.34: Number of pottery objects in each layer of MAS1 ........................................ 183
Figure ‎5.35: MAS1 ............................................................................................................ 184
Figure ‎5.36: A) Plan of MAS2, B) sketch of the south wall .............................................. 187
Figure ‎5.37: Number of objects by type in each layer of MAS2 ....................................... 187
Figure ‎5.38: MAS2 general view and excavated objects ................................................... 188
Figure ‎5.39: Studied samples of stone tools from ASH4 ................................................... 190
Figure ‎5.40: Drawings of samples of RP and RYP unglazed pottery from Asham and
Madodah ............................................................................................................................. 193
Figure ‎5.41: Photos of samples of RP and RYP unglazed pottery from Asham and
Masodah trenches ............................................................................................................... 194
Figure ‎5.42: Photos of samples of DP and PP unglazed pottery from Asham and Masodah
trenches .............................................................................................................................. 195
Figure ‎5.43: Drawings of samples of AG and CG glazed pottery from Asham and Masodah
trenches .............................................................................................................................. 198
Figure ‎5.44: Drawings of samples of LG and TG glazed pottery from Asham and Masodah
trenches .............................................................................................................................. 199
Figure ‎5.45: Photos of samples of LG, CG, and TG glazed pottery from Asham and
Masodah trenches ............................................................................................................... 200
Figure ‎5.46: Two samples of remains of cooking pot and bowel made of soapstone from
Asham and Masodah trenches ............................................................................................ 201
Figure ‎5.47: Drawings of samples of glassware from Asham and Masodah trenches ...... 202
Figure ‎5.48: Photos of samples glassware from Asham and Masodah trenches ............... 202
Figure ‎6.1: Gold/silver mining process from mining surface and extraction from quartz and
rocks ................................................................................................................................... 208
Figure ‎6.2: Process of extracting copper ............................................................................ 209
Figure ‎6.3: Two types of copper smelting kilns ................................................................. 211
Figure ‎6.4: Expected and actual furnace ............................................................................ 212
Figure ‎6.5: Smelting furnace and food kiln ....................................................................... 213
Figure ‎6.6: Three patterns of surveyed and excavated pounders ....................................... 215
Figure ‎6.7: Amount of surveyed and trenched pounders by type ...................................... 215
Figure ‎6.8: The four surveyed and excavated types of grinders ........................................ 216
VII
Figure ‎6.9: Amount of grinders surveyed and excavated by type...................................... 216
Figure ‎6.10: Amount of surveyed and excavated wares used in mining processes ........... 217
Figure ‎6.11: Some fragments of mining wares .................................................................. 221
Figure ‎6.12: Commercial settlements and ports contemporary to Asham ......................... 227
Figure ‎6.13: Non-mining surveyed and trenched unglazed and glazed pottery and glass
from Asham (including Masodah) ..................................................................................... 229
Figure ‎6.14: Selections of glazed pottery from different Islamic sites .............................. 233
Figure ‎6.15: Amount of pre-Islamic and Islamic non-mining and mining sites in al-Baha
region (al-Sarat and Tihama) ............................................................................................. 236
Figure ‎6.16: Distribution of pre-Islamic and Islamic non-mining sites, and mining sites in
al-Baha region according to each surveyed zone ............................................................... 236
Figure ‎6.17: Mining sites in Arabia ................................................................................... 242
Figure ‎6.18: Fragments of glazed pottery from SirAbaal .................................................. 243
Figure ‎6.19: Smelting furnaces from al-Noqrah ................................................................ 245
Figure ‎6.20: Fragments of glazed and non-glazed pottery, soapstone ware and glass from
mining sites in Taif ............................................................................................................ 246
Figure ‎6.21: Gold grinders and pounders, and part of soapstone pot from the site of Umm
Hoytat ................................................................................................................................. 248
Figure ‎6.22: Remains of surveyed pottery from al-Radrad site in Yemen ........................ 250
Figure ‎6.23: Mining sites in Oman and UAE .................................................................... 251
Figure ‎6.24: Remains of pottery from al-Safafir site, south of Ras al-Khimah (UAE) ..... 253

VIII
List of Tables
Table ‎4.1: Distribution of CASP in the SCTA’s archive ..................................................... 99
Table ‎4.2: Distribution of mines and mining settlements in the KSA resulting from SCTA
paper record ........................................................................................................................ 100
Table ‎4.3: Mines and mining sites in al-Baha identified from SCTA paper record .......... 101
Table ‎4.4: Mines and mining settlements in al-Baha region .............................................. 104
Table ‎4.5: Distribution of settlements according the pattern of settlement ....................... 119
Table ‎5.1: The amount of grinders and pounders in Asham and Masodah........................ 155
Table ‎5.2: The position of trenches in Asham and Masodah ............................................. 164
Table ‎6.1: The distribution of patterns of settlement in the study area .............................. 258

IX
Acknowledgements
All praises, gratitude and thanks are to ALLAH, the Supreme, for giving me the strength
and help to accomplish this work.
The Scientific Secretariat and many other supporters in Saudi Arabia deserve tribute, and I
was also assisted by many people in the UK; I would like to thank everyone who supported
me in this work, and any mistakes in this study are entirely my own; I hope I did not
disappoint their confidence in the treatment of this subject.
Foremost, I would like to express my deepest thanks to the President of the Saudi
Commission for Tourism and Antiquities (SCTA) in Saudi Arabia, His Royal Highness
Prince Sultan bin Salman bin Abdulaziz, for his efforts and interest in archaeology in Saudi
Arabia and for giving me a generous sponsorship to study my doctorate at the University
of York. I acknowledge the financial support provided by the Tourism Information and
Research Center (MAS) under SCTA’s Research Program, and logistical support from
SCTA in Riyadh and Al-Baha region during all phases of this work. I also wish to thank
Professor Ali Al-Ghabban, Vice-President of Antiquities and Museums in SCTA, for his
encouragement and support, and Dr. Hussein Abu Al-Hasan for his elegant and unlimited
assistance during this study.
I am grateful for the support, encouragement and advice of my supervisor Professor Geoff
Baily and my friend Professor Steve Roskams for the extensive knowledge he made
available to me in his office, in addition to his guidance during the fieldwork. The efforts
of Geoff and Steve really were the key motivations in this study. I would like to thank the
Chair of my TAP meeting, Keven Walsh, for his support and advice during the three years
of this study.
I am very grateful to the Archaeology Department at the University of York for providing
an enjoyable place to work and excellent assistance for all training courses throughout my
PhD. I am particularly grateful to all the administrative staff, including Janine Lyon, Helen
Goodchild and Claire Mcnamara. I would like to thank my fellow postgraduate students for
providing a sense of community and camaraderie, and the organizers of the weekly Forum
in the Department over the past three years for providing various interesting and engaging
topics, in addition to the feedback that I got for my contributions.
I am extremely grateful to my friend Mr. Thomas Marley for his discussion of the topic of
coins in the Islamic civilization, and his effort in reading this work and helping me develop
my academic writing skills. Special thanks to my intimate friends Dr. Abdullah Al-Sharik
and Dr. Saud Al-Gamdi at the Department of Archaeology in King Saud University,
Riyadh, for their interest and advice in this study.
I would also like to thank the organisers of the Historical Metallurgy Society, Research in
Progress Conference (November, 2012) at Newcastle University for their valued feedback
during the presentation of this project and for being able to benefit from other papers
presented in this field. I am similarly grateful to the organisers of the Society for Medieval
Archaeology Conference (December, 2012) at Cardiff University, who accepted this
project with its conference papers and which successfully presented a broad range of
papers concerning archaeology of the Middle Ages in numerous countries. I would like to
extend my gratitude to all the British people for their respect and friendly and sincere
treatment of me and my family during the past years; despite being from different cultures
and languages, we did not feel like foreigners in this part of the world.
X