Minds and Computers: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence

232 Pages·2007·0.81 MB·English

by  Matt Carter

Minds and Computers
Minds and Computers
An Introduction to the Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence
An Introduction to the Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence
Matt Carter
Could a computer have a mind? What kind of machine would this be? Exactly
what do we mean by ‘mind’ anyway? A M
n

In
The notion of the ‘intelligent’ machine, whilst continuing to feature in tro in
numerous entertaining and frightening fictions, has also been the focus of d
u d
a serious and dedicated research tradition. Reflecting on these fictions, and ctio s
on the research tradition that pursues ‘Artificial Intelligence’, raises a number n

of vexing philosophical issues. Minds and Computers introduces readers to to
these issues by offering an engaging, coherent and highly approachable th a
e n
interdisciplinary introduction to the Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence. P
hilo d
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Introductory material is presented from each of the disciplines which o
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constitute Cognitive Science: Philosophy, Neuroscience, Psychology, Computer h
y
Science and Linguistics. Throughout, readers are encouraged to consider the o o
f
implications of this disparate and wide-ranging material for the possibility of Ar m
developing machines with minds. They can expect to develop a foundation for tific p
philosophically responsible engagement with A.I., a sound understanding ia
of Philosophy of Mind and of computational theory, and a good feel for l In u
te t
cross-disciplinary analysis. llig e
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Features: ce s
• A directed philosophical focus
• A self-contained introduction to Computational Theory
• Clear and accessible explanations of technical M
material with abundant exercises
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• A glossary of terms.
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Matt Carter is a Fellow of the Philosophy Department at Melbourne University. C
This is his first book.
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Cover illustration & design:RIVER DESIGN,Edinburgh
Edinburgh University Press barcode E
22 George Square,Edinburgh EH8 9LF d Matt Carter
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www.eup.ed.ac.uk b
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ISBN 978 0 7486 2099 9 rg
h
MINDS AND COMPUTERS
for G
who Helped
and
for Sue
without whom ...
MINDS
AND
COMPUTERS
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE
PHILOSOPHY OF ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
Matt Carter
EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY PRESS
© Matt Carter,2007
Edinburgh University Press Ltd
22 George Square,Edinburgh
Typeset in Times
by Servis Filmsetting Ltd,Manchester,and
printed and bound in Great Britain by Cromwell Press,
Trowbridge,Wilts
A CIP record for this book is available
from the British Library
ISBN 978 0 7486 2098 2 (hardback)
ISBN 978 0 7486 2099 9 (paperback)
The right of Matt Carter
to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted in accordance with
the Copyright,Designs and Patents Act 1988.
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ix
1 Introduction 1
2 Dualism 4
2.1 Substance Dualism 4
2.2 Cartesian Dualism 5
2.3 Positive Arguments for Cartesian Dualism 5
2.3.1 The Argument from Religion 6
2.3.2 The Argument from Introspective Appearance 7
2.3.3 The Argument from Essential Properties 8
2.4 Arguments against Cartesian Dualism 9
2.4.1 The Problem of Other Minds 9
2.4.2 Ockham’s Razor 10
2.4.3 The Problem of Interaction 11
2.5 Other Dualisms 12
2.5.1 Parallelism 12
2.5.2 Occasionalism 13
2.5.3 Epiphenomenalism 13
2.6 Anomalous Monism 14
3 Behaviourism 15
3.1 Early Empirical Psychology 15
3.2 Physiological Psychology 16
3.3 Introspectionist Psychology 17
3.4 Psychological Behaviourism 20
3.5 Philosophical Behaviourism 23
3.6 Objections to Philosophical Behaviourism 24
4 Neuroanatomy 27
4.1 Macro-Neuroanatomy 27
4.2 Micro-Neuroanatomy 32
vi   
5 Australian Materialism 35
5.1 The Causal Theory of Mind 36
5.2 The Identity Theory 37
5.3 Arguments against Australian Materialism 38
5.4 What Mary Didn’t Know 42
6 Functionalism 44
6.1 Functional Definition 44
6.2 A Black Box Theory 45
6.3 Qualia Objections 48
7 Formal Systems 52
7.1 Effectivity 53
7.2 States and Rules 57
7.3 Specification 58
7.4 Generation and Derivation 61
7.5 Generation Trees 64
7.6 Formality and Isomorphism 67
8 Computability 70
8.1 Register Machines 70
8.2 Programs 71
8.3 Running a Program 73
8.4 Computation 75
8.5 Computable Functions 76
8.6 Building Programs 79
9 Universal Machines 85
9.1 Church/Turing Thesis 86
9.2 Gödel Coding 88
9.3 A Universal Machine 92
10 Computationalism 94
10.1 What Computationalism Isn’t 95
10.2 Software and Wetware 99
10.3 Variation 101
10.4 Learning 103
10.5 Creativity 106
10.6 Attributing Mentality 108
11 Search 113
11.1 Top Down,Bottom Up 113
11.2 Breadth Versus Depth 115
11.3 Heuristic Search 117

vii
12 Games 122
12.1 A Simple Game 122
12.2 Minimax 125
12.3 Pruning 127
12.4 Humans Versus Computers 128
13 Machine Reasoning 132
13.1 Logic and Deduction 132
13.2 Conditionality and Predication 134
13.3 Kinship 137
13.4 Expert Systems 141
14 Machines and Language 145
14.1 Interpreting Language 145
14.2 Generative Grammar 149
14.3 Phrase Structure Trees 150
14.4 Computing Language 152
15 Human Reasoning 154
15.1 Following Logically 156
15.2 Rational Performance 157
15.3 Mental Models 160
15.4 Explanatory Burden 161
16 Human Language 164
16.1 Obstruent Phonemes 165
16.2 Sonorant Phonemes 167
16.3 Allophones and Phonetic Realisation 170
16.4 First-Language Acquisition 172
16.5 Language and Rules 173
17 Meaning 175
17.1 The Chinese Room 175
17.2 Syntax and Semantics 177
18 Representation 181
18.1 Intentionality 181
18.2 Categories and Content 183
18.3 Symbols and Patterns 184
18.4 Cognitive Architecture 185
19 Artificial Neural Networks 187
19.1 Connectionist Architecture 187
19.2 Simple Artificial Neural Networks 189
viii   
19.3 Synthesising Speech 191
19.4 Learning 196
19.5 Pattern Recognition 198
19.6 Two Paradigms? 199
19.7 It’s Only a Model 200
20 Minds and Computers 202
20.1 Consciousness 202
20.2 Personal Identity 203
20.3 Emotions 205
20.4 Computers with Minds 206
Appendix I:Suggestions for Further Reading 207
Appendix II:Glossary of Terms 211
Index 218
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I’d like to express my gratitude to all who participated, directly and indi-
rectly,in the production of this book.
Thank you to the teaching staffwho were based in the Cognitive Science
programme at the University of Queensland in the final years of the
twentieth century, for inspiring in me a commitment to the importance of
cross-disciplinary analysis.My gratitude further extends to all of my teach-
ers – both within and without Philosophy.
Thank you also to the years of undergraduates who have suffered my
instruction.In particular,I am grateful to my ‘Minds and Machines’class of
2002 for inspiring this textbook in the first instance, and to my classes of
2006 for reading and commenting on material contained herein.
Thank you to the Philosophy Department at Melbourne University,
where I was based while writing this book,and to its superb office staff.
Thank you to all at EUP for publishing this volume and for being such a
pleasure to deal with.Particular thanks to Jackie Jones for her initial enthu-
siasm for the project.
Thank you to all my friends for their support and understanding,partic-
ularly to FB,Wayne and Eloise for tolerating innumerably many dinner-time
drop-ins,and to Lester and Christie for assistance above and beyond the call
of friendship.
Thank you very much to Graham Priest,without whom this book would
not have been written.
Thank you to Mia and Linus for being adorable,and a million thank yous
to Sue,for being wonderful.
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