Mind, Brain, and Free Will This page intentionally left blank Mind, Brain, and Free Will Richard Swinburne 1 3 GreatClarendonStreet,Oxford,OX26DP UnitedKingdom OxfordUniversityPressisadepartmentoftheUniversityofOxford. ItfurtherstheUniversity’sobjectiveofexcellenceinresearch,scholarship, andeducationbypublishingworldwide.Oxfordisaregisteredtrademarkof OxfordUniversityPressintheUKandincertainothercountries #RichardSwinburne2013 Themoralrightsoftheauthorhavebeenasserted Firstpublishedin2013 Impression:1 Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedin aretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,withoutthe priorpermissioninwritingofOxfordUniversityPress,orasexpresslypermitted bylaw,bylicense,orundertermsagreedwiththeappropriatereprographics rightsorganization.Enquiriesconcerningreproductionoutsidethescopeofthe aboveshouldbesenttotheRightsDepartment,OxfordUniversityPress,atthe addressabove Youmustnotcirculatethisworkinanyotherform andyoumustimposethissameconditiononanyacquirer BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData Dataavailable LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData Dataavailable ISBN 978–0–19–966256–2(Hbk.) ISBN 978–0–19–966257–9(Pbk.) PrintedinGreatBritainby MPGBooksGroup,BodminandKing’sLynn LinkstothirdpartywebsitesareprovidedbyOxfordingoodfaithand forinformationonly.Oxforddisclaimsanyresponsibilityforthematerials containedinanythirdpartywebsitereferencedinthiswork. Contents Preface vii Introduction 1 1. Ontology 4 2. Epistemology 40 3. PropertyandEventDualism 67 4. InteractiveDualism 100 5. AgentCausation 125 6. SubstanceDualism 141 7. FreeWill 174 8. MoralResponsibility 210 AdditionalNotes 230 Index 239 This page intentionally left blank Preface Idiscussedmanyoftheissuesofthepresentbookinapreviousbook,TheEvolutionof theSoul(1986,revisededition1997).Withafewrelativelysmallexceptions(thenature of the soul, discussed at the end of Chapter6 of this book, being the main one), my conclusions on those issues remain the same. But many of the arguments by which Isupportthoseconclusionsaredifferent,and—Ibelieve—deeperandstronger,based onafulldiscussionofunderlyingphilosophicalissues(e.g.thecriteriafortheidentityof events and substances, and the grounds for asserting that a certain state of affairs is metaphysicallypossible)whichunderliedifferencesamongphilosophersaboutissuesof mind and body. Also, this book includes a far fuller, and to my mind far more satisfactory, discussion than did The Evolution of the Soul, of what kind of free will humanspossess;andintheprocessIhavebeenabletotakeaccountinthepresentbook of the important results of recent neuroscience about the brain mechanisms which underlieourintentionalactions. I have used some material from the earlier book, as well as material from several articles of mine published in the last few years: ‘From Mental/physical Identity to Substance Dualism’ in (ed.) P. van Inwagen and D. Zimmerman Persons, Human and Divine,OxfordUniversityPress,2007,pp.142–65;‘Checosamirendeme?Unadifesa del dualismo delle sostanze’ in (ed.) A.Lavazza, L’Uomo a Due Dimensioni, Bruno Mondadori, 2008; ‘Could anyone justifiably believe epiphenomenalism?’, Journal of ConsciousnessStudies,18no3–4(2011),196–216;‘DualismandtheDeterminationof Action’ in (ed.) Richard Swinburne, Free Will and Modern Science, British Academy, 2011; and ‘How to determine which theory of personal identity is true’ in (ed.) G.GasserandM.Stefan,PersonalIdentity—SimpleorComplex?,CambridgeUniversity Press,2012.Thankstotheeditorsand/orpublishersofthesearticlesforpermissionto reusetheirmaterial.Iammostgratefultothetwoanonymousrefereeswhoproduced valuablecommentsonapenultimatedraftofthisbook,asalsotothosemanyphiloso- pherswithwhomIhavearguedabouttheissuesovernumerousyears.Andmythanks finallytoSarahBarkerfortypingandretypingearlierversionsofthebook,andtoPeter Momtchiloff for welcoming yet another book of mine and guiding it through the publicationprocess. This page intentionally left blank Introduction The focus of this book is the nature of human beings—whether we are merely complicated machines, or souls interacting with bodies; and what follows from this for whether we have free will in a sense which makes us morally responsible for our actions. But I think that we cannot make much progress in these two well explored fields without discussing certain very general preliminary issues of metaphysics and epistemology. So Chapter1 is devoted to the general issue of what sorts of things there are, and what are the criteria for one such thing being the same as another such thing. I distinguish three kinds of thing: substances (the constituents of the world such as electrons, planets, and houses), their properties (such as weighing 1000 kg, or being spherical), and events (occurrences at particular times, which consist in substances having or changing their properties). I then consider what are the criteria for two substances, properties,or eventsbeingthe samesubstance, property, or event.Imust askthosereaderswhoarenotprofessionalphilosopherstobepatientwithwhatmight seem the rather abstract hair-splitting arguments of this chapter. For only with clear criteria for the identity of substances, events, and such like can we answer questions about whether mental events are merely brain events (i.e. the same events as brain events), or whether I am the same thing (same substance) as my body. In Chapter2 Iconsiderwhatmakesabeliefthatacertaineventoccurredorthatacertainscientific theoryistrue,orthatsomepropositionispossiblytrue,ajustified(orrational)belief. And again I have to ask those readers who are not professional philosophers to be patient, as the full relevance of my conclusions on these issues will only be apparent laterinthebook.Foritisonlywhenwehaveasatisfactoryaccountofwhatmakessuch beliefs justified, that we will be in a position to assess the justification of a scientific theory that our intentions do or do not cause brain events; or the justification of the claimthat(inacertainsenseof‘possible’)itispossiblethatIcouldloseallofmypresent bodyandacquireaverydifferentone. Equippedwithimportantmetaphysicalandepistemologicalresults,Ithencomein Chapters 3–7 to examine the relation of our life of thought and feeling to what happens in our brains and so in our bodies. I argue in Chapter3 that there are two kinds of event in the world—physical events (including brain events) and mental