Military Cryptanalysis

125 Pages·1939·9.464 MB·English

by  Friedman W.F.

MILITARY CRYPTANALYSIS PART Ill ............................... 1
SECTION I ........................................................................ 5
INTRODUCTORY...................................................................... 5
SECTION II ....................................................................... 9
SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS USING CONSTANT-LENGTH....... 9
SECTION III ...................................................................... 12
SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS USING CONSTANT-LENGTH....... 12
SECTION IV...................................................................... 18
SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS USING CONSTANT-LENGTH....... 18
SECTION V....................................................................... 23
SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS USING VARIABLE-LENGTH ......... 23
SECTION VI...................................................................... 32
REVIEW OF AUTO-KEY SYSTEMS......................................... 32
SECTION VII..................................................................... 34
SOLUTION OF CIPHER-TEXT AUTO-KEY SYSTEMS............ 34
SECTION VIII.................................................................... 49
SOLUTION OF PLAIN-TEXT AUTO-KEY SYSTEMS............... 49
SECTION IX...................................................................... 54
METHODS OF LENGTHENING OR EXTENDING THE KEY... 54
SECTION X....................................................................... 57
GENERAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING SOLUTION OF......... 57
SECTION XI...................................................................... 62
THE (cid:141)COINCIDENCE(cid:142) OR (cid:141)x(cid:142) TEST .......................................... 62
SECTION XII..................................................................... 77
THE (cid:141)CROSS-PRODUCT SUM(cid:142) OR (cid:141)x TEST(cid:142)(cid:144) ......................... 77
SECTION XIII.................................................................... 83
APPLYING THE CROSS-PRODUCT SUM OR x TEST ........... 83
SECTION XIV.................................................................... 98
THE (cid:141)MONOALPHABETICITY(cid:142) OR (cid:141)+ TEST(cid:142) ............................ 98
SECTION XV..................................................................... 101
CONCLUDING REMARKS........................................................ 101
APPENDIX 1 ..................................................................... 102
INDEX ............................................................................... 121
(cid:144) Analytical Key for Military Cryptanalysis, Part IlI ...................... 123
BOOKS IN THE CRYPTOGRAPHIC SERIES .................. 124
YRATILIM SISYLANATPYRC
traP III
RELPMIS SEITEIRAV
OF CIDOIREPA NOITUTITSBUS SMETSYS
YB
MAILLIW .F NAMDEIRF
Page 2
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NAEGEA KRAP SSERP
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anugaL ,slliH ainrofilaC 45629
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Page 3
YRATILIM .SISYLANATPYRC TRAP III. RELPMIS SEITEIRAV OF
CIDOIREPA NOITUTITSBUS SMETSYS
STNETNOC
noitceS ahpargmP degaP
I. yrotcudortnI ________________________________________------------------------------------------------ _ ____.______ 1-4 I-4
II. noituloS of smetsys gnisu htgnel-tnatsnoc gniyek stinu to rehpicne htgnel-elbairav -nialp
txet ,sgnipuorg I ________________________________________--------------------- _ ______-_-________-----..------ 5-9 5-7
III. noituloS of smetsys gnisu htgnel-tnatsnoc gniyek stinu to rehpicne htgnel-elbairav -niaip
txet ,sgnipuorg II _________.______________________________---------------------------------------.-.--------- 31&l 31-s
.VI noituloS of smetsys gnisu htgneltnatsnoc gniyek stinu to rehpicne htgnel-elbairav -nialp
txet ,sgnipuorg III ________________________________________------------------------------ _ ___________________ 14-16 14-18
.V noituloS of smetsys gnisu htguel-elbairav gniyek stinu to rehpicne htgnel&na&noc -nialp
txet sgnipuorg ________________________________________-------------------------------------------------------- 17-22 19-27
.IV weiv& of yek-otua ...smetsys ________________________________________------------------ _ ___________________ 23 25-29
.IIV noituloS of txet-rehpic yek-otua smetsys .___ _ _________________.____________________ _ ____________________ 24-29 34-03
.IIIV noituloS of txet-nialp yek-otua smetsys .____ _ ______________ _ ______...___..__________________________----- 30-33 94-54
.XI sdohteM of gninehtgnel or gnidnetxe eht ..-.yek ________________________________________-------------- 34-36 25-05
.X lareneG selpicnirp gniylrednu noitulos of smetsys gniyolpme gnol or suounitnoc .--..-syek 37-40 75-35
.IX ehT ”ecnedicnioc“ or “I ”tset ____________________________ ________________________________________-------- 41-44 27-85
X , 11. 1 7 ~ch ”tcudorpww“ ~IIJ or x“ ”tset 4.5-1s 713 -78
.IIIX )ppA gni eht tcudorp-ssorc mus or x .tset ~. 4 9 i 1 39-)si
XI\.. ,th‘l ”ytirite,tah)~laonoirt“ or “4 ”tset 5 2 i. 1 91-96
.~\X gniltulcno:( .skramer ~. ;fi.-3j, 97
xidneppA 1. lanoitiddA seton on sdohtem for gnivlos txet-nialp deyek-otua srehpic ______-___________ l-7 98-116
xednI _____________.__________________________----- --- ------__-_-----_________________________----------------------------.--------- 117-118
lacitylanA yek for traP III -------_-__-_______________ - ________________________________________--------- _ ___________________ 119
(ml
Page 4
YROTCUDORTNI
bp-W-
yranimilerP skramer ________________________________________------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1
lareneG skramer nopu eht erutan of cihpargotpyrc yticidoirep ________________________________________------------------ 2
Effects of gniyrav eht htgnel of eht txet-nialp sgnipuorg ________________________________________-- - _________________ 3
yramirP dna yradnoces ;sdoirep tnatluser sdoirep ___________________________________________________________________ 4
.1 yranimiler’F skramer .a-. ehT txet yletaidemmi gnidecerp siht detoved flesti tsomla
ylevisulcxe ot citebahplaylop noitutitsbus smetsys of eht epyt dellac yek-gnitaeper .srehpic
tI saw nees woh a ytixaluger ni eht tnemyolpme of a detimil rebmun of stebahpla stluser ni eht
noitatsefinam of yticidoirep ro cilcyc anemonehp ni eht ,margotpyrc yb snaem of hcihw eht
rettal yam eb .devlos ehT ytlucEfid ni noitulos si yltcerid detalerroc htiw eht epyt dna rebmun
of rehpic stebahpla deyolpme ni cificeps .selpmaxe
.31 owT serudecorp tseggus sevlesmeht rof noitaredisnoc nehw eht tneduts tsylanatpyrc
sezilaer eht gniogerof secnatsmucric dna skniht of sdohtem ot etanimile eht sessenkaew tnerehni
ni siht cihpargotpyrc .metsys ,tsriF gniton taht eht seitluciffid ni noitulos esaercni sa eht
htgnel of eht yek ,sesaercni eh yam yduts eht stceffe of gniyolpme hcum regnol syek ot ees fi
eno dluow eb detnarraw ni gnicaip hcum tsurt ni taht dohtem of gnisaercni eht ytiruces of eht
.segassem nopU dnoces ,thguoht ,revewoh gnirebmemer taht sa a lareneg elur eht tsrif pets
ni eht noitulos stsisnoc ni gniniatrecsa eht rebmun of stebahpla ,deyolpme ti smees ot mih taht
eht tsom lacigol gniht ot od dluow eb ot esu a erudecorp hcihw lliw diova yticidoirep ,rehtegotla
lliw suht etanimile eht cilcyc anemonehp taht era yllamron detsefinam ni smargotpyrc of a
cidoirep ,noitcurtsnoc dna suht tneverp na ymene tsylanatpyrc from gnikat neve a tsrif pets
drawot .noitulos nI rehto ,sdrow eh lliw etagitsevni eht seitilibissop of cidoiwpa smetsys tsrif
dna fi eht stluser era ,yrotcafsitasnu eh lliw neht ees tahw eh nac od htiw smetsys gnisu yhtgnel
.syek
.c ,ylgnidroccA eht tsrif trap of siht txet lliw eb detoved ot na noitanimaxe of niatrec of eht
yrev elpmis seiteirav of ,cidoirepa citebahplaylop noitutitsbus ;smetsys retfa ,siht sdohtem of
gnidnetxe ro gninehtgnel trohs cinomenm ,syek dna smetsys gnisu yhtgnel syek lliw eb .deiduts
.2 lareneG skramer nopu eht erutan of cihpargotpyrc .a--.yticidoirep nehW eht lufthguoht
tneduts sredisnoc eht rettam of yticidoirtep ni citebahplaylop noitutitsbus smetsys dna seirt ot
niatrecsa sti laer ,erutan eh ,seton htiw emos eerged of tseretni dna esirprus spahrep taht ti si
desopmoc of owt latnemadnuf ,srotcaf esuaceb ereht era ni ytilaer oozt stnemele devlovni ni ati
.noitcudorp eH ,sah of ,esruoc emoceb etiuq railimaf htiw eht aedi taht yticidoirep setatissecen
eht esu of a gniyek tnemele dna taht eht rettal tsum eb deyolpme ni a cilcyc .rennam tuB eh
won snigeb ot ezilaer taht ereht si rehtona tnemele ,devlovni eht ecnacifingis of hcihw eh aah
spahrep ton ylluf ,detaicerppa ,zio taht sselnu eht yek si deilppa ot htgnel-tnatsnoc txet-nialp
spuorg on yticidoirep lliw eb det&nam yllanretxe yb eht ,margotpyrc etipsed eht evititeper ro
cilcyc esu of a htgnel-tnatsnoc .yek sihT noitazilaer si ylkciuq dewollof yb eht aedi taht ylbissop
lla yticidoirep yam eb dediova ro desserppus yb rehtie ro htob of owt :syaw )1( yB gnisu -tnatsnoc
htgnel gniyek stinu ot rehpicne htgnel-elbairav txet-nialp sgnipuorg ro )2( yb gnisu -elbairav
htgnel gniyek stinu ot rehpicne htgnel-fnatsnoc txet-nialp .sgnipuorg
.b ehT tneduts ta ecno sezilaer osla taht eht yticidoirep detibihxe yb yek-gnitaeper srehpic
of eht epyt deiduts ni eht gnidecerp ,txet si of a yrev elpmis .retcarahc ,erehT evisseccus srettel
of eht evititeper yek erew deilppa ot evisseccus srettel of eht .txet nI tcepser ot eht tnemyolpme
of eht ,yek eht cihpargotpyrc ro gniyek JFsecorp yam eb dias ot eb tnatsnoc dexijro ni .retcarahc
sihT ygolonimret sniamer eurt neve fi a elgnis gniyek tinu aevres ot rehpicne owt ro erom srettel
)1(
Page 5
2
ta a ,emit dedivorp ylno ta& eht sgnipuorg of txet-nialp sre,ttel era ,tnatsnoc ni .h,tgnel roF
,elpmaxe a elgnis yek rettel yam evres ot rehpicne owt evisseccus txet-nialp ;srettel fi eht yek si
evititeper ni retcarahc dna eht egassem si ,tneiciffus ni ,htgnel yticidoirep lliw llits eb detsefinam
yb eht margotpyrc dna eht rettal nac eb devlos yb eht sdohtem detacidni ni eht gnidecerp l.txet
,yllarutaN esoht sdohtem dluow erah ot eb deifidom ni ecnadrocca htiw eht cificeps epy-t of
gnipuorg .devlovni nT siht esac eht gnirotcaf ssecorp dluow esolcsid na tnerappa yek htgnel
eciw,t taht of eht laer .htgnel tuB yduts of eht ycneuqerf snoitubirtsid dluow noos wohs taht
eht ts1 dna d2 snoitubirtsid erew ,ralimis eht d3 dna ,ht4 eht ht5 dna ,ht6 dna os ,no gnidneped
nopu eht htgnel of eht .yek ehT lacigol pets si erofereht ot enibmoc eht snoitubirtsid ni reporp
sriap dna deecorp sa .lausu
.c nI lla hcus sesac of tnemrehpicne yb htgnel-tnatsnoc ,sgnipuorg eht tnerappa htgnel of
eht doirep sa( dnuof yb gniylppa eht gnirotcaf ssecorp ot eht )margotpyrc si a elpitlum of eht
laer htgnel dna eht elpitlum sdnopserroc ot eht htgnel of eht ,sgnipuorg taht ,si eht rebmun of
txet-nialp srettel derehpicne yb eht emas yek .rettel
.d ehT tniop o,t eb ,deton ,reve-woh si taht lla eseht sesac era llits cidoirep ni ,retcarahc
esuaceb htob eht gniyek stinu dna eht txet-nialp sgnipuorg era tnatsnoc ni .htgnel
.3 Effects of gniyrav eht htgnel of eht txet-nialp .e--.sgnipuorg tuB won redisnoc eht stceffe
of gnikam eno ro eht rehto of eseht owt stnemele elbairao ni .htgnel esoppuS taht eht tset-nialp
sgnipuorg era edam elbairav ni htgnel dna taht eht gniyek stinu era tpek tnatsnoc ni .htgnel
,nehT neve hguoht eht yek yam eb cilcyc ni retcarahc dna yam taeper flesti ynam semit ni eht
esruoc of ,tnemrehpicne lanretxe yticidoirep si ,desserppus sselnu eht wul gninrevog eht noitairav
ni txet-nialp sgnipuorg si flesti cilcyc ni ,retcarahc dna eht htgnel fo eht egassem si ta tsael oczt ro
erom semit taht fo eht elcyc elbacilppa ot siht elbairav .gnipuorg
.b )1( roF ,elpmaxe esoppus- eht stnednopserroc eerga ot esu desrever dradnats rehpic
stebahpla htiw eht yek drow ,LANGIS ot rehpicne a ,egassem eht rettal gnieb dedivid pu otni
spuorg sa nwohs :woleb
IS G N A L S I G N A L s I G
1 21 321 4321 54321 1 21 321 4321 54321 1 21 321 4321 54321
C MO NAM GNID RENEG A FL SRI MRAT ISAHY S US 0DE REDR EFFES
JC m TE HAFK UWNWJ L NH QRA UPGN FVNGP I RT EPO REFR CBBCO
AN L S I G N A L s I NG A L
1 21 321 4321 54321 1 21 321 4321 54321 1 21 321 4321 54321
C IT TEV WENT SRIFY T TA 0ON RIDN NITCE G HT TTA PELE SENOH
L SH SHQ ZFOW QRADK E UN MMN UDIY FKZQO C mYxELwPwuuNzN
IS G N A L s I
1 21 321 4321 54321 1 21 321
C MO SAM CTIW RAORH D CS ...MMO
Q m O& LU’FR JAMZT I QA UWW...
YAEQOTPYRC
;z; HAFKT UWNWJ RANHL UPGNQ FVNGP PORTI REFRE
HQ==JL ZFOWS QRADK MNUNN UDIYM FKZQO UNZNC
UWPWL THYXE GwruQ LUFRO JAMZT WUQAI 1 . . .
xavmF
L
1 nI siht ,noitcennoc ees noitceS ,III yratiliM ,sisylanatpytC troP ,II
Page 6
3
)2( ehT rehpic txet ni siht elpmaxe .giF( )1 swohs a cihpargartet dna a cihpargatnep
.noititeper ehT owt secnerrucco of QUWUG ( )A.WhOC= era detarapes yb na lavretni of 09
;srettel eht owt secnerrucco of NQRA ( )TSRI= yb 93 .srettel ehT remrof noititeper )GJKUQ( ,
ti lli-u eb ,deton si a eurt cidoirep ,noititeper ecnis eht txet-nialp ,srettel rieht ,gnipuorg dna
eht yek srettel era .lacitnedi ehT lavretni ni siht ,esac fi detnuoc ni smret of ,srettel si eht
tcudorp of eht gniyek ,elcyc 6, yb eht gnipuorg ,elcyc 15. ehT rettal noititeper ( )NQRA si ton
a eurt cidoirep noititeper ni eht esnes taht htob selcyc evah neeb detelpmoc ta eht emas ,tniop
sa si eht esac ni eh,t remrof .noititeper tI si eurt taht eht rehpic srettel ,NQRA gnitneserper
TSRI htob ,semit era decudorp yb eht emas yek ,sre,ttel I dna ,G tub eht gnirehpicne stniop ni
eh,t gnipuorg elcyc era tnereffid ni eht owt .sesac snoititepeR of siht epyt yam eb demret
yllaitrap cidoirep ,snoititeper ot hsiugnitsid meht from esoht of eht yletelpmoc cidoirep .epyt
.c neh&‘ eht slavretni neewteb eht owt snoititeper deton evoba era erom ylluferac ,deiduts
yllaicepse from eht tniop of weiv of eht gnitcaretni selcyc hcihw thguorb meht ,tuoba ti lliw eb
nees taht gnitnuoc gnidrorca ot sgnipuorg dna ton gnidrocca ot elgnis ,srettel eht owt shpargatnep
QU’WUG era detarapes yb na lavretni of 03 .sgnipuorg ,rO fi eno sreferp ot kool ta eht rettam ni
eht thgil of eht gniyek ,elcyc eht owt secnerrucco of QUWJG era detarapes yb 03 yek .srettel
ecniS eht yek si tub 6 sret,tel ni ,htgnel siht snaem taht eht yek sah enog hguorht 5 .selcyc ,suhT
eht rebmun 30 si eht tcudorp of eht rebmun of srettel ni eht gniyek elcyc (6) yb eht rebmun
of htgnel-tnereffid sgnipuorg ni eht gnipuorg elcyc (5). ehT noitcaretni of eseht owt selcyc
yam eb deviecnoc of sn gnikatrap of eht erutan of owt sraeg hcihw era ni ,hsem eno nevird yb
eht .rehto enO of eseht sraeg sah 6 ,hteet eht reh,to 5, dna eht hteet era .derebmun fI eht
owt sraeg era detsujda os taht eht rebmun“ 1 ”hteet era tnecajda ot hcae ,rehto dna eht sraeg
era desuac ot ,evlover eseht owt hteet lliw ton emoc rehtegot niaga litnu eht regral raeg snh
edam 5 snoitulover dna eht rellams eno 6. gniruD siht ,emit a latot of 03 sgnihsem of laudividni
hteet lliw evah .derrucco tuB ecnis eno noitulover of eht rellams raeg eht=( gnipuorg )elcyc
stneserper eht tnemrehpicne of 51 ,sret,tei nehw detalsnart ni smret of ,srettel eht 6 etelpmoc
snoitulover of siht raeg naem eht tnemrehpicne of 09 .srettel sihT stnuocca rof eht doirep of
,09 nehw detats ni smret of .srettel
.d ehT owt secnerrucco of eht rehto ,noititeper ,NQRA era ta na lavretni of 93 ;srettel tub
ni smret of eht rebmun of gninevretni ,sgnipuorg eht lavretni si ,21 hcihw si ylsuoivbo owt
semit eht htgnel of eht gniyek .elcyc nI rehto ,sdrow eht yek sah ni siht esac dessap hguorht 2
.selcyc
.e nI a gnol egassem derehpicne gnidrocca ot hcus a emehcs aa eht gniogerof ereht dluow
eb ynam snoititeper of htob sepyt dessucsid evoba eht( yletelpmoc cidoirep dna eht yllaitrap
)cidoirep os taht eht tsylanatpyrc thgim retnuocne emos ytlucitfid ni sih stpmetta ot hcaer a
,noitulos yllaicepse fi eh dnh on noitamrofni sa ot eht cisab .metsys tI si ot eb deton ni siht
noitcennoc taht fi yna eno of ehb sgnipuorg sdeecxe yas ,5 ,6 ro 7 srettel ni ,htgnel eht emehcs
yam evig flesti yawa rehtar ,ylisae ecnis ti si raelc taht nihtiw hcae gnipuorg eht tnemrehpicne si
yltcirts .citebuhplaonom ,eroferehT ni eht tneve of sgnipuorg of erom naht 5 ro 6 ,srettel eht
citebahplaonom stnelaviuqe of elat-llet sdrow hcus sa ,KCATTA ,NOILATTAB ,NOISIVID
,.cte dluow dnats .tuo ehT metsys si tsom ,suoicaciffe ,erofereht htiw trohs .sgnipuorg
f. dluohs.tI osla eb deton taht ereht si gnihton tuoba eht emehcs hcihw seriuqer a ytiraluger
ni eht gnipuorg elcyc hcus sa taht deidobme ni eht .elpmaxe A yhtgnel gnipuorg elcyc hcus sa
eht eno nwohs woleb yam tsuj sa ylisae eb ,deyolpme ti gnieb dediug yb a yek of sti ;nwo rof
,elpmaxe eht rebmun of stod dna sehsad deniatnoc ni eht lanoitanretnI esroM slangis rof eht
srettel gnisopmoc eht esarhp NOITARALCED FO ECNEDNEPEDNI thgim eb .desu ,suhT A .( >-
sah 2, B ..-( >. sah ,4 dna os .no :ecneH
ECNEDNEPEDNIFONOITARALCED
1421321413224323212324413
Page 7
4
ehT gnipuorg elcyc si +3 1 2+4+4-f . . ,. ro 06 srettel ni .htgnel esoppuS eht emas esarhp
si desu sa na gnirehpicne yek rof gninimreted eht noitceles of rehpic .stebahpla ecniS eht
esarhp sniatnoc 52 ,srettel eht etelpmoc doirep of eht metsys dluow eb eht tsael nommoc elpitlum
of 52 dna 06 ro 003 .srettel sihT metsys thgim raeppa ot dleiy a yrev hgih eerged of -otpyrc
cihparg .ytiruces tuB eht tneduts lliw ees sa eh sessergorp taht eht ytiruces si ton os hgih sa
eh yam ta tsrif ecnalg esoppus ti ot .eb
.4 yramirP dna yradnoces sdoirep ; tnatluser .a-.sdoirep tI sah neeb deton taht eht htgnel
of eht etelpmoc doirep ni a metsys hcus sa eht gniogerof si eht tsael nommoc elpitlum of eht
htgnel of eht owt tnenopmoc ro gnitcaretni .sdoirep nI a ,yaw ,erofereht ecnis eht tnenopmoc
sdoirep etutitsnoc eht cisab tnemele of eht ,emehcs yeht yam eb detangised sa eht cisab ro yramirp
.sdoirep esehT era osla neddih ro tnetal .sdoirep ehT tnerappa ro tnetap ,doirep taht ,si eht
etelpmoc ,doirep yam eb detangised sa eht yradnoces ro tnatluser .doirep nI niatrec sepyt of
rehpic senihcam ereht yam eb erom nah,t owt yramirp sdoirep hcihw tcaretni ot ecudorp a
tnatluser ;doirep ,osla ereht era sesac ni hcihw eht rettal yam tcaretni htiw reh’tona yramirp
doirep ot ecudorp a yraitret ;doirep dna os .no ehT ,lanif ro ,tnatluser ro tnerappa doirep si eht
eno hcihw si yllausu deniatrecsa tsrC sa a tluser of eht yduts of eht slavretni neewteb .snoititeper
sihT yam ro yam ton eb nekorb nwod otni sti tnenopmoc yramirp .sdoirep
.b hguohtlA a noitulos yam netfo eb denia.tbo tuohtiw gnikaerb nwod a tnatluser doirep
otni sti tnenopmoc yramirp ,sdoirep eht gnidaer of ynam segassem gniniatrep ot a daerpsediw
metsys of terces noitacinummoc si hcum detatilicaf nehw eht sisylana si dehsup ot sti tsewol
,level taht ,si ot eht tniop erehw eht lanif cihpargotpyrc emehcs sah neeb decuder ot sti tselpmis
.smret sihT yam evlovni eht yrevocsid of a y,ticilpitlum of elpmis stnemele hcihw tcaretni ni
evisseccus cihpargotpyrc .atarts
Page 8
II
NOITCES
NOITULOS FO SMETSYS GNISU HTGNEL-TNATSNOC GNIYEK STINU OT REHPICNE
HTGNEL-ELBAIRAV TXET-NIALP ,SGNIPUORG I
hpargaraP
yrotcudortnI skramer _____________________ ________________________________________-----------------------------.-----.--.--.--------- 5
cidoirepA tnemrehpicne decudorp yb sgnipuorg gnidrocca to drow shtgnel ________________________________________---- 6
noituloS nehw tcerid dradnats rehpic stebahpla era deyolpme ________________________________________--------------------- 7
noituloS nehT desrever dradnats rehpic stebahpla era deyolpme ________________________________________----------------- 8
stnemmoC on gniogerof sesac ________ _ ________________________________________------------------------------------------------------ 9
.5 yrotcudortnI .a-.skramer ehT metsys debircsed ni hpargarap 3 eroba si ylsuoirbo ton
ot eb deifissalc sa cidoirepa ni ,erutan etipsed eht noitcejni of a elbairav rotcaf hcihw tvhtni
esac saw desab nopu ytiralugerri ni eht htgnel of eno of eht owt stnemele devlovni ni -ahplaylop
citeb .noitutitsbus ehT elbairav rotcaf saw ereht tcejbus ot a wal hcihw ni flesti saw cidoirep
ni .retcarahc
.b oT ekam hcus a metsys ylurt cidoirepa ni ,retcarahc yb gnitarobale nopu eht cisab
emehcs rof gnicudorp htgnel-elbairav txet-nialp gnipuorg ,s dluow eb ,elbissop tub .lacitcarpmi
roF ,elpmaxe gnisu eht emas dohtem sa si nevig ni hpargarap 3f rof gninimreted eht shtgnel of
eht ,sgnipuorg eno thgim yolpme eht txet of a ;koob dna fi eht rettal si regnol naht eht egassem
ot eb ,derehpicne eht margotpyrc dluow ylniatrec wohs on yticidoirep sa sdrager eht slavretni
neewteb ,snoititeper hcihw dluow eb .lufitnelp ,revewoH sa ydaerla ,detacidni hcus a emehcs
dluow ton eb yrev lacitcarp rof raluger noitacinummoc neewteb n egral rebmun of ,stnednopserroc
rof snosaer hcihw era on tbuod .tnerappa ehT koob dluow evah ot eb dedraugefas sa dluow a
;edoc gnirehpicne dna gnirehpiced dluow eb etiuq ,wols ,emosrebmuc dna tcejbus ot ;rorre
,dna sselnu eht emas yek txet erew desu rof lla ,segassem sdohtem ro srotacidni dluow evah ot
eb detpoda ot wohs yltcaxe erehw tnemrehpicne snigeb ni hcae .egassem A relpmis dohtem
rof gnicudorp yltnatsnoc ,gnignahc cidoirepa txet-nialp sgnipuorg ,erofereht si ot eb .thguos
.6 cidoirepA tnemrehpicne decudorp yb sgnipuorg gnidrocca ot drow .-.shtgnel ehT
tselpmis dohtem rof gnicudorp cidoirepa txet-nialp sgnipuorg si eno hcihw snh sseltbuod gnol
oga detneserp flesti ot eht ,tneduts ,.G tnemrehpicne gnidrocca ot eht lautca drow shtgnel of
eht egassem ot eb .derehpicne
.b hguohtlA eht egareva rebmun of srettel gnisopmoc eht sdrow of yna lacitebahpla egaugnal
si ylriaf ,tnatsnoc evisseccus sdrow gnisirpmoc nialp txet yxav a taerg laed ni siht ,tcepser dna
siht noitairav si tcejbus ot on ’.wal nI cihpargelet ,hsilgnE rof ,elpmaxe eht naem htgnel of
sdrow si 2.5 ;srettel eht sdrow yam niatnoc from 1 ot 51 ro erom ,srettel tub eht evissecc’us
sdrow yrav ni htgnel ni na ylemertxe ralugerri ,rennam on rettam woh gnol eht txet yam .eb
.c sA a ,ecneuqesnoc eht esu of drow shtgnel rof eted gninimr eht rebmun of srettel ot eb
derehpicne yb hcae yek rettel of a evititeper yek sdnemmoc flesti ot eht decneirepxeni -gotpyrc
rehpar sa noos sa eh semoc ot dnatsrednu eht yaw ni hcihw, yek-gnitaeper srehpic era .devlos
fI ereht si on yticidoirep ni eht ,smargotpyrc woh nac eht srettel of eht rehpic ,txet nettirw ni
1 It si ,eurt of ,esruoc taht eht secnereffid neewteb owt sretirw ni tcepser to eht shtgnel dna sretcarahc of
eht sdrow deniatnoc ni rieht lanosrep seiralubacov era often dekram dna nac eb .derusaem esehT secnereffid
yam eb tcejbus to niatrec ,swal tub eht rettal era not fo eht epyt ni hcihw ew era ,detseretni gnieb lacigolohcysp
rehtar naht lacitamehtam ni .retcarahc eeS ,trekciR ,.E weN sdohteM rof eht ydutS fo ,erutaretiL ytisrevinU of
ogacihC ,sserP ,ogacihC 1927.
(5)
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