Microwave Remote Sensing of Sea Ice

465 Pages·19.546 MB·English

Microwave Remote
Sensing of Sea
GeophysicalM onograph Series
Including
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50 Deep Structurea nd PastK inematicso f 4 EarthquakeP redictioniAn International
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Oya
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1 Point Defects in Minerals Robert N. Schock
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and PlanetaryS ciences YasuhikSoy onoa nd
Murli H. Manghnani
GeophysicalM onograph 68
Microwave Remote
Sensing of Sea Ice
Frank D. Carsey
Editor
AmericGaeno physical
Publishedu nder the aegiso f the AGU Books Board.
Library of CongressC ataloging-in-PublicationD ata
Microwave remote sensingo f sea ice / Frank D. Carsey, editor.
p. cm. -- (Geophysical monograph; 68)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-87590-033-X
1. Sea ice--Remote sensing. 2. Microwave remote sensing.
I. Carsey, Frank D. II. Series.
GB2401.72.R42M53 1992
551.3'43(cid:127)dc20 92-41032
CIP
ISSN:0065-8448
ISBN 0-87590-033-X
Copyrigh1t9 92b yt heA mericaGne ophysiUcanli on2, 000F loridAa venueN, W,W ashington,
DC 20009
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Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................................1.. .
'1.1 Sea Ice ............................................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Sea Ice in Climate and Operations. .............................................................................................................................3..
1.3 The Sea Ice Variables ..................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Ice Extent ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.5 The Microwave Properties of Ice .................................................................................................................................... 3
1.6 TechnologyD evelopment ............................................................................................................................................4.. .
1.7 Instruments in Orbit, Data Sets in Hand ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.8 The Book6
Chapter 2. Physical Propertieso f Sea Ice Relevant to Remote Sensing. .................................................................................9.
2.1 introduction .................................................................................................................................................................... 9
2.2 First-Year Ice ................................................................................................................................................................ 10
2.2.1 Growth of First-Year Ice ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.2 Crystal Structure ..............................................................................................................................................1. 0
2.2.3 Incorporation of Brine and Air .......................................................................................................................... 12
2.2.4 Polar Contrasts .................................................................................................................................................. 13
2.3 Evolution of Multiyear Ice ..........................................................................................................................................1. 4
2.3.1 Desalination ....................................................................................................................................................... 14
2.3.2 Crystal Retexturing. ......................................................................................................................................1..5..
2.3.3 Formation and Modification of the Surface Layer ........................................................................................... 15
2.3.4 Melt Ponds and Hummocks .............................................................................................................................. 15
2.3.5 Properties of Multiyear Versus First-Year Ice ................................................................................................. 17
2.4 SurfaceP roperties .......................................................................................................................................................2. 0
2.4.1 Deformation Features ....................................................................................................................................... 20
2.4.2 Small-Scale SurfaceR oughness. ......................................................................................................................2. 3
2.5 Snow Cover ................................................................................................................................................................... 23
2.6 Ice Property Statistics .................................................................................................................................................2. 4
2.7 Summary26
Chapter 3. The Physical Basis for Sea Ice Remote Sensing ....................................................................................................2 9
3.1 Definition of ElectromagneticQ uantities ...................................................................................................................2. 9
3.1.1 Relative Permittivity ......................................................................................................................................2..9.
3.1.2 Propagation,A bsorption,a nd Phase Constant ................................................................................................2 9
3.1.3 Extinction and Scattering Coefficient. ............................................................................................................3..0
3.1.4 Penetration Depth ..........................................................................................................................................3..0.
3.2 Dielectric and Extinction Propertieso f the Water-Ice-Snow System ......................................................................3. 0
3.2.1 Pure Water, Seawater, and Brine ..................................................................................................................... 30
3.2.2 Freshwater Ice ................................................................................................................................................... 32
3.2.3 Sea Ice ................................................................................................................................................................ 33
3.2.4 Snow ................................................................................................................................................................... 37
3.3 Scattering in Sea Ice and its Snow Cover. ................................................................................................................... 40
3.3.1 Volume Scattering Fundamentals ...................................................................................................................4. 1
3.3.2 Surface Scattering Fundamentals ...................................................................................................................4. 2
3.3.3 Microwave Signatures and Scattering Physics. ...............................................................................................4 2
3.4 Summary ...................................................................................................................................................................... 44
Chapter 4. PassiveM icrowave Signatureso f Sea Ice ............................................................................................................4..7
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 47
4.2 Sensors .......................................................................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.1 Surface-Based Sensors ...................................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.2 Aircraft-Based Sensors ...................................................................................................................................... 48
4.2.3 Satellite-Based Sensors .....................................................................................................................................
4.3 PassiveM icrowave Signatureso f Sea Ice .................................................................................................................4..8.
4(cid:127)3.1 Observations With Surface-Based Sensors ...................................................................................................... 49
4.3.2 ObservationsW ith Aircraft-BasedI magers ...................................................................................................5..2
4.3.3 Observations From Satellite Sensors ............................................................................................................... 57
4.4 Sea Ice Features ........................................................................................................................................................... 59
4.4.1 Leads and Fractures .......................................................................................................................................... 60
4.4.2 Ridges ..............................................................................................................................................................6..0
4.4.3 Melt Ponds ......................................................................................................................................................... 61
4.4.4 Icebergs. ...........................................................................................................................................................6..1
4.5 Mediating Effects .......................................................................................................................................................6..2
4.5.1 Snow ................................................................................................................................................................... 62
4.5.2 Flood and Meltwater at the Snow-Ice Interface .............................................................................................. 63
4.5.3 AtmosphericE ffects .........................................................................................................................................6. 5
4.5.4 Seasonal Variation ............................................................................................................................................ 65
4.6 Lake Ice and River Ice .................................................................................................................................................. 67
4.6.1 C-band Data (Great Lakes) ............................................................................................................................... 67
4.6.2 Ka-band Data (Alaska) ...................................................................................................................................... 67
4.7 Unresolved Issues ......................................................................................................................................................... 68
Chapter 5. SAR and ScatterometerS ignatureso f Sea Ice .....................................................................................................7..3
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................................................. 73
5.2 Scattering Measurements ............................................................................................................................................7 4
5.2.1 Descriptiono f In-Situ Data Collections. .........................................................................................................7..4
5.2.2 Radar Integral Equation ..................................................................................................................................7. 5
5.2.3 Origin of Backscatter ........................................................................................................................................ 76
5.2.4 Water and Ice Backscatter Discussion ............................................................................................................. 80
5.3 Importance of Environmental and Physical Properties. ............................................................................................8. 2
5.3.1 Temperature ......................................................................................................................................................8 2
5.3.2 Snow Cover ........................................................................................................................................................ 83
5.3.3 Surface Roughness. ..........................................................................................................................................8. 4
5.3.4 Dielectric Constant and Salinity ...................................................................................................................... 85
5.3.5 Brine SurfaceL ayer and Brine-Enriched Slush ............................................................................................8..7
5.3.6 Importance of Low-Density Ice Layer for Multiyear Ice Backscatter Characterization ................................8 7
5.3.7 Physical and Microwave Properties of Multiyear Ice .......................................................................................8 7
5.4 Ice Type Backscatter Summary ..................................................................................................................................8. 9
5.4.1 Angle and FrequencyB ehavior ........................................................................................................................8. 9
5.4.2 Evolution of the Microwave Signature of First-Year Ice .................................................................................9 1
5.4.3 Seasonal Evolution ............................................................................................................................................ 91
5.4.4 Regional Variation ............................................................................................................................................9 2
5.5 SAR Observations ........................................................................................................................................................ 93
5.5.1 Examples of SAR Imagery ................................................................................................................................9 4
5.6 SAR-Scatterometer Comparisons. ...........................................................................................................................9..8.
5.7 Optimum Frequency,P olarization, and IncidenceA ngle ..........................................................................................9. 8
5.7.1 Optimum Frequency .........................................................................................................................................9 8
5.7.2 Optimum Polarization ....................................................................................................................................... 99
5.7.3 Optimum IncidenceA ngle ..............................................................................................................................1. 00
5.8 Radar Lookup Table for ASF GPS ............................................................................................................................1. 00
5.9 Future Opportunities and Issues. .............................................................................................................................1. 02
Chapter 6. Digital SAR Image Formation ...........................................................................................................................1..0. 5
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 105
6.2 Digital Image Formation ...........................................................................................................................................1. 05
6.2.1 Image Formation Process. ..............................................................................................................................1. 05
6.2.2 Image Artifacts ................................................................................................................................................1 07
6.3 PostimageF ormation Considerations. ......................................................................................................................
6.3.1 Slant-Ranget o Ground-RangeC onversion. ................................................................................................1..0. 9
6.3.2 SAR Image Noise Effects ...............................................................................................................................1. 09
Chapter 7. Sea Ice Altimetry .............................................................................................................................................1..1..1.
7.1 Introduction111
7.2 Instrument Description. ............................................................................................................................................1. 11
7.2.1 Instrument Design ..........................................................................................................................................1. 11
7.2.2 Pulse-Limited Altimetry .................................................................................................................................. 112
7.2.3 Waveform Averaging .......................................................................................................................................1. 13
7.2.4 The Adaptive Tracker and ProcessingL oops. ..............................................................................................1..1. 3
7.2.5 Errors Common Over Ice ................................................................................................................................. 114
7.3 Sea Ice ScatteringM odels at Normal Incidence .....................................................................................................1..1 6
7.3.1 Introduction to Altimeter Backscatter Models ................................................................................................ 116
7.3.2 Backscatter From a Stationary Gaussian Random Surface ...........................................................................1 16
7.3.3 BackscatterF rom a HeterogeneousR andomS urface ...................................................................................1. 18
7.3.4 Discussion ......................................................................................................................................................... 119
7.4 Theory Versus Measurement ..................................................................................................................................... 121
7.4.1 Surface Measurements .................................................................................................................................... 121
7.4.2 Aircraft Measurements .................................................................................................................................... 123
7.4.3 Sate]lite Measurements ................................................................................................................................... 125
7.4.4 Satellite Altimetry ComparedW ith Infrared, Visible, and PassiveM icrowaveI magery ............................1. 27
7.5 Summary ...............................................................................................................................................................1..3..2.
Chapter 8. MicrowaveS ea Ice SignatureM odeling ............................................................................................................1..3. 7
8.1 Introduction137
8.2 Overview of Signature Models .................................................................................................................................1..3 9
8.2.1 Fundamental Physical Mechanisms and Effects ............................................................................................1 39
8.2.2 Volume Scattering Models ..............................................................................................................................1. 41
8.2.3 RoughS urfaceS catteringM odels. ..............................................................................................................1..4..8.
8.3 Case Study 1: A Thin Gray Ice Sheet .....................................................................................................................1..5 0
8.3.1 Ice History and Characterization ...................................................................................................................1. 50
8.3.2 ModelC omparison..s.. .....................................................................................................................1..5..2.. ...........
8.3.3 Discussion ......................................................................................................................................................... 160
8.4 Case Study 2: Cold Old Ice .......................................................................................................................................1. 62
8.4.1 Ice Characterization ......................................................................................................................................... 162
8.4.2 Model Comparisons.. ....................................................................................................................................1..6..4
8.4.3 Discussion ......................................................................................................................................................... 170
8.5 Conclusions171
Chapter 9. Laboratory Investigationso f the ElectromagneticP ropertieso f Artificial Sea Ice ............................................1 77
9.1 Introduction177
9.2 Scope178
9.3 Growth Phase of Thin Saline Ice ............................................................................................................................... 183
9.3.1 Thin Ice Data interpretation .........................................................................................................................1..8 6
9.4 Urea ice ....................................................................................................................................................................... 188
9.5 Desalinated Ice ........................................................................................................................................................... 190
9.6 Pancake Ice ................................................................................................................................................................. 192
9.7 Surface Effects193
9.7.1 RoughenedS urface. .........................................................................................................................................1. 93
9.7.2 Rubble Surface ................................................................................................................................................. 193
9.7.3 Snow-Covered Surface ..................................................................................................................................... 195
9.8 Significanceo f CRRELEX Results. ..........................................................................................................................1..9 9
Chapter 10. The Estimation of GeophysicaPl arametersU sing PassiveM icrowaveA lgorithms. ......................................2. 01
10.1