Microoptics Technology: Fabrication and Applications of Lens Arrays and Devices

531 Pages·2004·25.4 MB·English

by  Nicholas F. Borrelli

DK1143_half-series-title 10/7/04 1:17 PM Page A
Microoptics
Technology
Second Edition
Copyright © 2005 by Marcel Dekker
DK1143_half-series-title 10/7/04 1:17 PM Page i
Microoptics
Technology
Second Edition
Nicholas F. Borrelli
Corning Incorporated
Corning, New York, U.S.A.
MarcelDekker NewYork
Copyright © 2005 by Marcel Dekker
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Copyright © 2005 by Marcel Dekker
Preface to Second Edition
Ithasbeenfiveyearssincethefirstpublicationofthebookon
MicroopticsTechnology,butwhatafiveyearsithasbeen.Itis
arguable that in these last five years never has optical tech-
nology experienced such a burst of activity and optimism.
Although the financial aspect of the optimistic projection,
the so-called bubble, burst, nonetheless the technical commu-
nity produced a body of significant real results. In other
words, although Wall Street may have come out empty, the
optical technology community advanced with new materials,
devices, and systems. Although bubbles burst, hardware
sustains.
Thesecondeditionofthisbookspeakstosomeofthenew
things that emerged out of the flurry of activity that was
fueledbythebubble.Ihaveaddedtwonewchaptersandsub-
stantially enlarged another that hopefully supports this
assertion. I am happy to find out that much of the content
ofthefirsteditionservedasagoodbasisforthekindofoptical
devices that were to be involved in the telecommunication
portion of the effort. I have tried to add new things that
emerged over the last five years to further add to this conclu-
v
Copyright © 2005 by Marcel Dekker
vi Preface
sion. I fully expect that in the next five years we will begin to
see some of these innovative ideas begin to creep into our
ways of doing things.
I gratefully thank the many people who have helped
me in this writing. In particular, I thank David Morse, the
Director of Research of the Laboratory at Corning Incorpo-
rated for given me the opportunity to spend the time on the
book. I thank Karl Koch and the whole photonic crystal fiber
group for their advice and a great deal of material to draw
from, to Charlene Smith for critically reading the new chap-
ters, and to Shiela Hughey for her diligence, patience, and
good humor in helping with the drawings.
Copyright © 2005 by Marcel Dekker
Contents
Preface . . . . v
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2. Refractive Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1. Optics Review . . . . 11
2.2. Fabrication Methods . . . . 22
2.3. Comparison and Analysis . . . . 47
Appendix A. Lenses Derived from
Surface Tension 56
Appendix B. Ray-Trace Algorithm . . . . 61
3. Gradient Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1. Introduction . . . . 69
3.2. Optical Theory . . . . 70
3.3. Planar Lens . . . . 79
3.4. Methods of Fabrication . . . . 85
3.5. Analysis and Comparison . . . . 116
vii
Copyright © 2005 by Marcel Dekker
viii Contents
4. Diffractive Element Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.1. Diffraction Theory Review . . . . 129
4.2. Methods of Fabrication . . . . 140
4.3 Analysis . . . . 155
5. Erect One-to-One Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.1. Introduction . . . . 165
5.2. Optics of One-to-One Erect Imaging . . . . 168
5.3. Device Applications . . . . 175
5.4. Resolution/Contrast . . . . 179
5.5. Radiometry . . . . 188
5.6. Further Aspects of Fabrication . . . . 198
6. Two-Dimensional Arrays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.1. Introduction . . . . 203
6.2. Applications . . . . 204
6.3. Two-Dimensional Arrays . . . . 227
Appendix A. Gaussian Beam Imaging . . . . 249
7. Gratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
7.1. Introduction . . . . 257
7.2. Types of Diffraction Gratings . . . . 259
7.3. Fabrication of Microgratings . . . . 265
7.4. Applications . . . . 295
Appendix A. ‘‘Derivation of Kramers–
Kronig Relation’’ . . . . 308
8. Optical Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
8.1. Background . . . . 317
8.2. Polarizers . . . . 321
8.3. Waveplates . . . . 334
8.4. Beam Separators . . . . 337
8.5. Faraday Effect . . . . 342
8.6. Actual Optical Isolator Structures . . . . 349
Appendix A. Jones Matrix . . . . 360
9. Photonic Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
9.1. Background and Introduction . . . . 365
9.2. Frequency vs. k Diagrams . . . . 371
Copyright © 2005 by Marcel Dekker
Contents ix
9.3. Structures . . . . 375
9.4. Photonic Crystal Fibers . . . . 381
9.5. Fabrication Techniques . . . . 398
9.6. Applications . . . . 407
9.7. Optical Fibers . . . . 416
Appendix A. Mathematical Framework . . . . 432
10. Femtosecond–Laser Interaction
in Glasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
10.1. Introduction . . . . 439
10.2. GeneralTheoryofOpticalDamageinSolids . . . . 441
10.3. Ultra-short Laser Pulse Ablation . . . . 443
10.4. Induced Refractive Index . . . . 450
10.5. Physical Mechanism for Index Change . . . . 454
10.6. Device Applications . . . . 461
10.7. Interaction with Crystals . . . . 476
Appendix A. . . . . 478
11. Negative Refractive Index Materials . . . . . . . . 489
11.1. Background . . . . 489
11.2. Effect of Magnetic Permeability . . . . 492
11.3. Negative Refractive Index . . . . 492
11.4. Negative Index Materials . . . . 494
11.5. Methods of Producing Negative Refractive
Index Behavior . . . . 497
11.6. Applications . . . . 507
Appendix A. Negative Effective Refractive Index . . . . 518
Copyright © 2005 by Marcel Dekker
1
Introduction
Theemergenceandrapidgrowthofthemicroelectronicindus-
try, and its concomitant drive for the miniaturization of
electronic devices, together with the optical fiber telecommu-
nicationindustryanditsneedtocouplelightinandoutofsin-
glemodewaveguides,hascreatedintheirwake,anewareaof
optics termed ‘‘micro-optics’’. What is meant by this term is
optical elements of dimension of a millimeter or smaller.
Primarily, this has meant lenses, or elements that act as
lenses,aswellasstructuresthatredirect,polarize,andother-
wise alter some state or direction of light. These would
include elements like, mirrors, gratings, polarizers, and the
like, made in some ‘‘micro’’ form. If one includes opticalwave-
guide structures as well, this broader classification can be
considered under the name, ‘‘integrated optics’’. Another
interesting aspect of the evolution of micro-optics has been,
not only has the microelectronic industry supplied the need
for tiny optical devices, but has been able, in some cases, to
supply the technology by which it can be fabricated. We will
see in a later chapter that the very microfabrication technol-
ogy used to fabricate microcircuits can be used to produce
1
Copyright © 2005 by Marcel Dekker