Methods of Sampling and Analysis of Data in Farm Animal Ethology

90 Pages·1986·5.23 MB·English

by  Per Jensen

Bereich und Zielsetzung Aims and scope
Jede Tierart, auch die der Haustiere, befindet Each animal species, including domestic ani
sich in ihrer Entstehungsgeschichte in einer mals, develops in the course of its evolution a
sie formenden Wechselbeziehung zu ihrer na reciprocal relationship to every aspect of the
heren und weiteren, belebten und unbelebten environment. This adaption is so slow that
Umgebung. Dieser Prozess der Anpassung compared with a human lifetime it seems to be
verlauft so langsam, dass er uns in der Zeit static. As a result of this action single animals
spanne unseres Lebens als statisch vorkom show manifold behaviour pattern towards
men muss. Die einzelnen Tiere haben vielfalti their companions and towards the creatures
ge Verhaltensformen zu ihren Artgenossen and plants of their environment. This con
und zu den tierischen und pflanzlichen Lebe stant readiness and capability to adapt to ever
wesen der Umgebung ausgebildet. Diese stan changing surroundings, the various limits of
dige, mit den naturlichen Umgebungsbedin physiological and ethological adaption, allows
gungen wechselnde Bereitschaft und Fahig forms of animal management which are eco
keit des Organism us, sich auf die fliessenden logically balanced and adequate to animal re
Veranderungen der Biosphare einzustellen, al quirements.These aspects, which are of far
so die engeren und weiteren Grenzen des phy wider interest than those of production and
siologischen und ethologischen Anpassungs revenue, are to be investigated extensively.
bereiches, lassen Haltungsformen zu, die oko
logisch sinnvoll und tiergerecht sind. Diese Animals are autonomous creatures, even if
weit uber die ausschliesslichen Nutzungs- they depend on human beings. We share and
und Produktionseigenschaften hinausgehen depend on the biosphere with the animals and
den Aspekte wollen wir umfassender und ver this compels us to responsibility. This ever
tieft kennenlernen. changing, living relationship of humans and
animals is the basis for our respect of our ani
Auch die vom Menschen in Abhangigkeit ste mal cohabitants.
henden Tiere sind eigenstandige Lebewesen.
Die Verantwortung des Menschen begrundet There is a need for test conclusions in the
sich aus der Tatsache, mit dem Tier in dersel field of ecology, ethology and health. This col
ben Biosphare zu leben und wie das Tier von lected information is intended to serve as a
ihr abhangig zu sein. Aus diesem lebendigen, reference and basis for the realization of eco
veranderlichen Verhaltnis des Menschen zum logically sound animal management based on
Tier ergibt sich notwendig eine Basis der Re the animals' requirements.
spektierung und Achtung unserer tierischen
Partner. This series and it's sources of information are
intended to be a symposium for the many dif
Es besteht ein Bedurfnis fur Forschungsergeb ferent disciplines and professions dealing
nisse auf dem okologisch-ethologischen und with animal management.
gesundheitlichen Gebiet. Diese sollen gesam
melt als breite Informationsbasis dienen und The series offers space for well-founded test
die Voraussetzung zum Aufbau und zur Reali conclusions and critical discussions.
sierung von okologisch sinnvollen und tier
entsprechenden Haltungsformen bilden.
Diese Reihe hat als Informationsquelle Bruk
kenfunktion zwischen den verschiedenen an
der gesunden Tierhaltung beteiligten Diszipli
nen und Berufsgruppen.
Die Reihe bietet Raum fOr fundierte Versuchs
und Untersuchungsergebnisse und darauf fus
sende kritisch diskutierte Oberlegungen.

TH17
Tierhaltung, Band 17
Animal Management, Vol. 17
Herausgegeben vonlEdited by
Dr. D. W. FOIsch
Inst. fiir Nutztierwissenschaften
Physiologie und Hygiene
ETH
CH-8092 Ziirich
Wissenschaftlicher BeiratiScientific Board
W. Angst, Basel, CH P. Leloup, Aesch, CH
H. Bach, Linz, A J. B. Ludvigsen, Kopenhagen, DK
H. Bartussek, Irdning, A H. Mommsen, Frankfurt, D
M. A. S. Bates, Stamford, GB J. F. Obermaier. Darmstadt, D
G. C. Brantas, Beekbergen, NL G.Preuschen,ScherneCk,D
H. Bruhin, Basel, CH H. Rehm, Mayen, D
O. Buess, Sissach, CH J. CI. Ruwet, Liege, B
M. Cena, Wroclaw, PL H. H. Sambraus, Miinchen, D
G. Claerr, Strassburg, F H. Schaefer, Heidelberg, D
D. J. Coffey, Claygate, GB M. W. Schein, Morgantown, W. VA., USA
M. A. Crawford, London, GB P. M. Schenk, Wageningen,NL
J. Czak6, Godollo, H E. Scheurmann, Giessen, D
W. Dietl, Ziirich, CH W. M. Schleidt, College Park, M. D., USA
I. Ekesbo, Skara, S U. Schnitzer, Karlsruhe, D
Y. Espmark, Trondheim, N G. H. Schwabe, Pion, D
R. Ewbank, Liverpool, GB D. Senn, Basel, CH
M. W. Fox, Washington, D. C., USA P. B. Siegel, BlaCksburg, VA., USA
A. Gigon, Ziirich, CH E. Stephan, Hannover, D
G. Graefe, Donnerskirchen, A G. TembroCk, Berlin, DDR
A. Grauvogl, Grub, D E. Trumler, Birken-Konigsessen, D
W. Groth, Freising, D B. Tschanz, Bern, CH
P. Gutknecht, Miilhausen, F H. Vogtmann, Witzenhausen, D
J. C. Guyomarc'h, Rennes, F H. WaCkernagel, Basel, CH
W. Herre, Kiel, D R. G. Warner, Ithaca, N. Y., USA
J. Hess, Basel, CH U. Weidmann, Leicester, GB
J. K. Hinrichsen, Giessen, D W. H. Weihe, Ziirich, CH
R. J. Holmes, Palmerston North, NZ P. R. Wiepkema, Wageningen, NL
B. O. Hughes, Edinburgh, GB E. Wolff, Diisseldorf, D
J. F. Hurnik, Guelph, CND K. Zeeb, Freiburg, D
M. Kiley-Worthington, Brighton, GB E. Zimen, Waldhiiuser, D
F. Kovacs, Budapest, H V. Ziswiler, Ziirich, CH
W. KUhnelt, Wien, A
Springer Basel AG
Per Jensen
Bo Algers
Ingvar Ekesbo
Methods of Sampling
and Analysis of Data in
Farm Animal Ethology
1986
Springer Basel AG
Acknowledgements
The editor is grateful to Dr. B. O. Hughes, Poultry Research Centre,
Roslin, Midlothian, Scotland, and to Dr. H. Gubler, University of
Zurich, Switzerland, for their editional assistance.
Author's address
CIP·Kurztitelaufnahme der Deutschen Bibliothek
Jensen, Per:
Methods of sampling and analysis of data in farm
animal ethology / Per Jensen ; Bo Algers ;
Ingvar Ekesbo. - Basel ; Boston ; Stuttgart
Birkhauser, 1986.
(Animal management; Vol. 17)
NE: Algers, Bo:; Ekesbo, Ingvar:; Tierhaltung
© Springer Basel AG 1986
Originally published by Birkhauser Verlag in 1986.
ISBN 978-3-0348-6616-3 ISBN 978-3-0348-6614-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-0348-6614-9
5
CONTENTS
1. Introduction ••..••.•.•.• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 7
1.1 Applied ethology 7
1.2 The design of an ethological study 8
1.2.1 Construction of hypotheses 8
1.2.2 Measurement scales 9
1.2.3 States and events 9
1.2.4 When and what to record 9
1.2.5 Field studies and experiments 10
2. Methods of observation and recording • • . • • • • • • • • • . • • •. 12
2.1 Marking of animals 12
2.1.1 General 12
2.1.2 Poultry 13
2.1.3 Pigs 14
2.1.4 Cattle 15
2.1.5 Technical equipment 15
2.2 Direct observation and recording 17
2.2.1 Pre-conditions for the use of the method 17
2.2.2 Recordings 18
2.2.3 The observers 18
2.2.4 Length of observation bouts 20
2.2.5 Technical equipment 20
2.3 Indirect observation and recording 24
2.3.1 Pre-conditions for the use of the method 24
2.3.2 Indirect observation with film and video 27
2.3.3 Behavioural recordings from photo. film and video 28
2.3.4 Technical equipment 28
3. Methods in the construction of ethograms • • • . • • • • • • • • • .• 31
3.1 General principles 31
3.1.1 The behavioural catalogue 31
3.1.2 The construction of an ethogram 32
3.2 Methods of analysis and description 34
3.2.1 Recording and description 34
3.2.2 Quantification of ethograms 38
3.3 Technical equipment 40
4. Methods in the recording of behavioural frequencies • . • • • . • • • 44
4.1 Continuous recording 44
4.1.1 Total observation 44
4.1.2 Focal animal sampling 45
4.2 Interval recording 45
4.2.1 Pre-conditions for the use of method 45
4.2.2 How interval recording is carried out 46
4.2.3 Choice of interval 46
4.3 The recording of interactions using sociometric matrices 49
4.3.1 Pre-conditions for the use of the method 49
4.3.2 How sociometric recordings are carried out 49
4.3.3 Quantitative description of interactions 51
4.3.4 Index of settled pair-relations 53
6
4.3.5 Attack-retreat ratio 53
4.4 Technical equipment 54
5. Methods in the analysis of behavioural sequences ...•••..•.. 59
5.1 General sequence analysis 59
5.1.1 Pre-conditions for the use of the method 59
5.1.2 Intra-individual analysis 60
5.1.3 Inter-individual analysis 63
5.2 Information theory 64
5.2.1 Pre-conditions for the use of the method 64
5.2.2 Concepts and definitions 65
5.2.3 Quantitative definitions 65
5.2.4 Examples of information-calculations 68
5.2.5 The use of information theory in applied ethology 72
5.3 Technical equipment 72
6. Statistical methods ..•...... • . . . . . . • . . . • . • . • • 75
6.1 General 75
6.2 Analysis of behavioural frequencies 75
6.3 Analysis of sequential material 76
7. Final conclusions 78
References • . . . • 80
7
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 APPLIED ETHOLOGY
Ethology can be defined as the science of animal behaviour and its causes.
Behaviour is an integral part of the animal's adaptation mechanisms and is
inseparable from its physiological ormorphological adaptations. Since beha
viour constitutes the visible interaction of an animal with its physical and
social surroundings, ethological methods constitute an important element in
studies of how animals are affected by different environments. Thus, ethology
is an essential part of the judgement of animal welfare in different animal
husbandry systems, (17, 25, 27, 59, 91, 92).
The branch of ethology working with such problems in domestic animals is
usually an applied science. Experimental and analytical methods in applied
ethology do not differ in any fundamental way from the ones used in general
ethology. However, the special circumstances in different domestic animal
husbandry systems often require some sort of adaptation of the prevalent
methods and techniques. This report gives an account of the fundamental
methods used in studies of animal behaviour, and some guidelines as to how
the methods can be adapted for use in applied experiments.
The experience of people involved in the welfare of farm animals shows that
knowledge of behaviour, in particular knowledge of behavioural aberrations (17,
59), is, for the veterinarian, an important tool in diagnosis. A number of
different experimental designs have been used to study animal welfare from a
behavioural point of view (25, 88):
1. Fundamental studies of behaviour in a stimulus-rich environment. This
provides knowledge of the biological function of different behaviour-patterns.
Through other experiments it is then possible to study the importance for the
animals of different behavioural functions.
2. Deprivation experiments, in which certain behaviours are prevented from
being performed for a shorter or longer time. Frequency, sequential organi
sation and intensity can be studied when the behaviour is once again allowed
to be performed.
3. Studies of unusual or mal-adaptive behaviours together with experiments on
the correlation between the occurrence of such behaviour and reduced welfare.
4.Choice experiments, including Skinner box experiments, where the animals
themselves are required to choose the kind of environment that presumably
provides the highest degree of welfaY'e.
8
5. Exposure,of dnimals to stressful situations, where their behaviour in those
instances can be compared to that found in different husbandry systems.
1.2 THE DESIGN OF AN ETHOLOGICAL STUDY
1.2.1 Construction of hypotheses
The final result of an ethological research project is to a large extent
determined by decisions made before the observation of animals has even been
started. Five fundamental things must be considered before the start of the
actual study and the more thought that is paid to each, the better the
ultimate purposes of the study can be fulfilled (4, 24):
1. The problem to be investigated must be defined in detail.
2. The behavioural parameters which are best suited to answer the questions in
the specific problem should be identified and described.
3. A sampling method must be chosen which gives results truly representative
of the actual parameters.with a minimum bias.
4. A sampling technique must be chosen which allows the theoretical sampling
method to be used, and it must be feasible under the specific exterr,al experi
mental conditions.
5. The most relevant statistical testing methods must be used.
Each one of these five decisions entails specific difficulties and a decision
on one point severely affects the liberty of choice at the others.
The present report will hereafter deal mainly with pOints 2-5 above. It is,
therefore, important to state here, that the available methods and
techniques are dependent solely on the clear and explicit formulation of
questions and hypotheses. The difficulties involved can be exemplified
3S follows (4):
If one is interested in studying aggression in a group of animals one can start
by formulating the question: Are males more aggressive than females? This
question is, however, too vague to allow a proper choice of methods.It is
necessary e g to specify what is to be recorded as "aggresslon", whether
the question concerns all age-classes or only adults, and so on. Even
when all such things are specified. several possible interpretations of the
question are possible, e g: Are males on an average involved in aggressive
behaviour more often during the day than females? Do males initiate aggressive
encounters more often than females? Is the aggressive behaviour of males more
serious, intense and dangerous than that of females? Is it more likely that
the response to an aggressive behaviour will be an aggressive behaviour if
the recipient is a male than if it is a female?
The choice among these possible questions depends on the main problem to be
solved and on an evaluationof the biological relevance of the different