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Meteorite Impact! The Danger from Space and South Africa's Mega-Impact The Vredefort Structure (Geoparks of the World) PDF

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Preview Meteorite Impact! The Danger from Space and South Africa's Mega-Impact The Vredefort Structure (Geoparks of the World)

Knowledge is little To know the right context is much To know the right spot is everything Credited to: Hugo von Hofmannsthal (cid:117) Figure 1: False-colour Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite image of the Vredefort Dome and the surrounding Witwatersrand basin. Image courtesy of Michael Phillips, formerly of the University of Greenwich, United Kingdom. Image processed by M.E. Phillips, with input from Drs M.A. Bussell and I. McDonald at the University of Greenwich. A & S G W S IMS COPE OF THE EOPARKS OF THE ORLD ERIES The Geopark initiative is booming! Spectacular geo-morphological landscapes and regions with special geological features or mining sites, notably promoted as “Geoparks”, have proven to be excellent tools to educate the public about “Earth Sciences”. Moreover, Geoparks can also be shown to be areas for recreation and significant sustainable economic development through geotourism. More and more national and international stakeholders are engaged in projects related to “Geo- conservation”, “Geoparks” and “Geotourism” and have thus positively influenced the general perception of modern Earth sciences, remarkably. The series provides a place for in-depth presentations of Geoparks and the developmental and management issues that surround them. It is not limited to existing Geoparks but can include the presentation of potential Geoparks and other areas of recognized geoscientific importance. While it is foreseen that the majority of the books will deal with the presentation of individual Geoparks or regions, the series may also include general books on Geopark development/management and also the proceedings from scientific meetings focusing on Geo-park/tourism/conservation issues. 2 METEORITE IMPACT! T D S HE ANGER FROM PACE AND S A ' M - OUTH FRICA S EGA IMPACT V S THE REDEFORT TRUCTURE BY Wolf Uwe Reimold and Roger L. Gibson WITH A CHAPTER BY Anton Pelser, Mauritz Naudé and Kevin Balkwill G W EOPARKS OF THE ORLD D M EVELOPMENT AND ANAGEMENT SERIES EDITOR WOLFGANG EDER, GERMANY ASSOCIATE EDITORS PETER BOBROWSKY, CANADA HARSH GUPTA, INDIA IBRAHIM KOMOO, MALAYSIA SOSPETER MUHONGO, TANZANIA EDITORIAL BOARD ROLF EMMERMANN, OCHIR GEREL, PATRICK JAMES, KAZUO OIKE, EIKICHI TSUKUDA Third Edition, completely revised. 123 Published by Third Edition 2009 Meteorite Impact 3 C(cid:217)(cid:155)(cid:151)(cid:174)(cid:227)(cid:221) Production Team Copyright Reserved All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be Editing and layout reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in Council for Geoscience any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Illustrations redrafted by Linette Cloete Copyright Printers and (cid:2)c Springer-VerlagBerlinHeidelberg2010 Bookbinders Publishers ISBN 978-3-642-10463-3 Frontispiece: Earthshine on the Moon. Clementine spacecraft image of part of the Lunar surface solely illuminated by light reflected from Earth. The glow on the Lunar horizon is light from the Sun, which is just behind the Lunar limb. Planet Venus is visible at the top of the image. Image courtesy of NASA, http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/ Landscape of the Vredefort Dome. 4 The delightful scenery in and around the Vredefort Dome. Vaal River at Schoemansdrift Bridge. Meteorite Impact 5 C(cid:202)(cid:196)(cid:227)(cid:155)(cid:196)(cid:227)(cid:221) F OREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 P I ART C 1 HAPTER T(cid:171)(cid:155) (cid:155)(cid:131)(cid:217)(cid:189)(cid:249) (cid:171)(cid:174)(cid:221)(cid:227)(cid:202)(cid:217)(cid:249) (cid:202)(cid:165) E(cid:131)(cid:217)(cid:227)(cid:171) — (cid:174)(cid:195)(cid:214)(cid:131)(cid:145)(cid:227), (cid:242)(cid:202)(cid:189)(cid:145)(cid:131)(cid:196)(cid:202)(cid:155)(cid:221), (cid:131)(cid:196)(cid:151) (cid:155)(cid:131)(cid:217)(cid:189)(cid:249) (cid:189)(cid:174)(cid:165)(cid:155) . . . . . . . . . 15 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Geological change — the answers within, and without. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Man on the Moon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Back to the beginning — from the Big Bang to early Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Impact — the ubiquitous process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 The oldest rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Time to cool — birth of the Kaapvaal continent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Old crust in the Vredefort Dome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Rifting, oceans, volcanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Mountains, fire and ice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 The unique Bushveld magmatic event. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 C 2 HAPTER C(cid:171)(cid:131)(cid:202)(cid:221) (cid:131)(cid:196)(cid:151) (cid:145)(cid:131)(cid:227)(cid:131)(cid:221)(cid:227)(cid:217)(cid:202)(cid:214)(cid:171)(cid:155) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Extinction or survival — our restless Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Meteorite-impact catastrophes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Normal (background) versus mass extinctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 A brief look at the impact record in the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 What are the projectiles capable of causing an impact catastrophe?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 What is an impact crater? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 How can we identify impact structures? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .92 Shock metamorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 C 3 HAPTER T(cid:171)(cid:155) (cid:174)(cid:195)(cid:214)(cid:131)(cid:145)(cid:227) (cid:171)(cid:155)(cid:217)(cid:174)(cid:227)(cid:131)(cid:166)(cid:155) (cid:202)(cid:165) (cid:221)(cid:202)(cid:231)(cid:227)(cid:171)(cid:155)(cid:217)(cid:196) A(cid:165)(cid:217)(cid:174)(cid:145)(cid:131). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 Tswaing meteorite crater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Does Tswaing have a twin? (Kalkkop Crater, Eastern Cape Province). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 South Africa’ s other Giant Impact — Morokweng impact structure, North West Province . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Our southern African neighbours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Testimony of earliest impact catastrophe — Barberton and the Northern Cape Province . . 113 Traces of catastrophe in the Karoo?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 6 C 4 HAPTER V(cid:217)(cid:155)(cid:151)(cid:155)(cid:165)(cid:202)(cid:217)(cid:227): T(cid:171)(cid:155) (cid:189)(cid:131)(cid:217)(cid:166)(cid:155)(cid:221)(cid:227) (cid:131)(cid:196)(cid:151) (cid:202)(cid:189)(cid:151)(cid:155)(cid:221)(cid:227) (cid:174)(cid:195)(cid:214)(cid:131)(cid:145)(cid:227) (cid:221)(cid:227)(cid:217)(cid:231)(cid:145)(cid:227)(cid:231)(cid:217)(cid:155) (cid:174)(cid:196) (cid:227)(cid:171)(cid:155) W(cid:202)(cid:217)(cid:189)(cid:151) . . . 117 The Vredefort Structure revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Getting to know the giant: By road through the Vredefort Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Traversing the outer parts of the Vredefort Dome (Fochville to Parys). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 5 The geology of the Vredefort Dome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 The unique rock formations and deformations in the Vredefort Dome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 The findings of the early Vredefort geologists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138 The second phase: evidence of impact? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Shock metamorphism — the undeniable evidence! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 The Vredefort Structure in the 1970s and 1980s: a time of confusion... but hard work! . . 1 48 What do dead elephants in Leningrad have to do with the Vredefort Structure?. . . . . . . . . 1 51 The third phase — solving the riddle, at last! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 Vredefort research in the 21st Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Vredefort — an open book about the history of Earth and the nature of Earth’s interior. . 161 C 5 HAPTER T(cid:171)(cid:155) (cid:217)(cid:155)(cid:145)(cid:155)(cid:196) (cid:227) (cid:171)(cid:174)(cid:221)(cid:227)(cid:202)(cid:217) (cid:249) (cid:202)(cid:165) (cid:227)(cid:171)(cid:155) V(cid:217) (cid:155)(cid:151)(cid:155)(cid:165)(cid:202)(cid:217)(cid:227) D(cid:202)(cid:195)(cid:155) (cid:131)(cid:217)(cid:155)(cid:131) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. .. ... . .163 SECTION 1 TRAVELLING THROUGH TIME: ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE VREDEFORT DOME . . . . . . . . . . . .164 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .164 Stone Age Vredefort Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .165 The Iron Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168 Archaeological research on the Askoppies Late Iron Age site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .170 Archaeology of the historical period on the dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .175 SECTION 2 BEYOND THE FRONTIER HISTORY OF THE VREDEFORT DOME AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179 The geographic setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .181 Development of towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .183 Treading on territorial toes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .185 Mineral resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .187 The Second Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .189 After the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .195 20th Century development and growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 Development of infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .198 Development of tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 Workers and forced removals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .199 SECTION 3 FL ORA AND FAUNA O FTHE VREDEFORTDO ME — WHAT, WHEREANDWHY? . . . . . . . . . . .201 The Vredefort Dome plants (flora) in a geographical context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201 The composition of the flora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .201 Which biome occurs on the Vredefort Dome? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 Veld types on the Vredefort Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .203 Factors that affect the vegetation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .205 The habitats on the Vredefort Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 The effect of geology on the vegetation of the Vredefort Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 Recent changes in habitats on the Vredefort Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .208 Woody vegetation in the Vredefort Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Fauna in the Vredefort Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .210 Meteorite Impact 7 C 6 HAPTER F(cid:217)(cid:155)(cid:216)(cid:231)(cid:155)(cid:196)(cid:227)(cid:189)(cid:249) (cid:131)(cid:221)(cid:187)(cid:155)(cid:151) (cid:216)(cid:231)(cid:155)(cid:221)(cid:227)(cid:174)(cid:202)(cid:196)(cid:221) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Frequently asked questions about the Vredefort impact event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .216 Where is the projectile responsible for the Vredefort impact?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Do we know from which direction the Vredefort bolide came? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Do we know how large the bolide was that caused the Vredefort catastrophe? . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Could any life forms have perished in this catastrophe?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Would this impact have influenced further development of life? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Can there be other impact structures of the size of Vredefort, not yet discovered on Earth? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Major diamond, gold and platinum resources lie close to the Vredefort Dome. Why have no major ore deposits been found in the dome itself? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Is Vredefort truly unique? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 Is the Cradle of Humankind related to the impact structure? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 C 7 HAPTER W(cid:171)(cid:131)(cid:227) (cid:151)(cid:202)(cid:155)(cid:221) (cid:227)(cid:171)(cid:155) (cid:165)(cid:231)(cid:227)(cid:231)(cid:217)(cid:155) (cid:171)(cid:202)(cid:189)(cid:151) (cid:165)(cid:202)(cid:217) (cid:171)(cid:231)(cid:195)(cid:131)(cid:196)(cid:187)(cid:174)(cid:196)(cid:151)? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 What does the future hold for humankind?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .226 C 8 HAPTER T(cid:202)(cid:231)(cid:217)(cid:174)(cid:221)(cid:195) (cid:174)(cid:196) (cid:227)(cid:171)(cid:155) V(cid:217)(cid:155)(cid:151)(cid:155)(cid:165)(cid:202)(cid:217)(cid:227) D(cid:202)(cid:195)(cid:155) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Outlook: the Vredefort Dome’ s potential to become an international heritage asset. . . . . . . 234 The phenomenal landscape of the Vredefort Dome area. 8 P II ART T V D OUR GUIDE THROUGH THE REDEFORT OME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Stop 1 Vredefort Dome World Heritage Site Visitor Centre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .244 Stop 2 Inlandsee pan and the centre of the Vredefort impact structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246 Stop 3 Ancient oceanic crust at Greenlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Stop 4 Broodkop shear zone and bentonite mines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .249 Stop 5 Steynskraal pelitic granulites — a thermal record . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .251 Stop 6 Pseudotachylitic breccia and gneisses, Parys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Stop 7 Pseudotachylitic breccia and gneisses in the outer core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .252 Stop 8 Vredefort Granophyre and Bushman petroglyphs, Daskop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .257 Stop 9 Vredefort Granophyre and Dominion Group lavas, Iniekom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .258 Stop 10 R ocks and metamorphism of the Central Rand Group (Witwatersrand Supergroup), Donkervliet valley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .262 Stop 11 Vaal River view site and alkali granite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .265 Stop 12 Gold mining in the Venterskroon area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .266 Stop 13 Shatter cones in Booysens formation, Rooderand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .267 Stop 14 Amazon gold reef, Rooderand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .270 Stop 15 V entersdorp lavas, Askoppies Iron Age settlement and Anglo-Boer War sites on Tygerfontein farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Stop 16 Stromatolites and cave in Transvaal rocks of the western collar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272 Stop 17 Schoemansdrift Bridge shatter cones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .273 Stop 18 Dwarsberg (Steenkampsberg) view site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Stop 19 R ocks and metamorphism of the lower Witwatersrand Supergroup, Kommandonek Nature Reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .275 Stop 20 Impact-induced fold and view site, Parson’s Rus . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..22775 Stop 21 Coesite-stishovite-bearing quartzite Kromellenboog Stream . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..227766 Stop 22 W itwatersrand Supergroup quartzite, impact fault and Bobbejaanrant viewpoint, Smilin’ Thru Resort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .277 A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 B IBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 G LOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 A PPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 I NDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 Meteorite Impact 9

Description:
The impact of large extraterrestrial bolides (asteroids and comets) with Earth is an ever-present danger that humanity has only recently begun to recognise. Of the 175 impact craters found thus far on Earth, three giants stand out – Chicxulub in Mexico, Sudbury in Canada, and the Vredefort Impact
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