Metallic Films for Electronic, Optical and Magnetic Applications: Structure, Processing and Properties

2014·34.4 MB·English

by  Katayun Barmak & Kevin Coffey

Metallic films for electronic, optical and
magnetic applications
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical Materials:
Number 40
Metallic films for
electronic, optical
and magnetic
applications
Structure, processing and properties
Edited by
Katayun Barmak and Kevin Coffey
Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited,
80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK
www.woodheadpublishing.com
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© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
Contents
Contributor contact details xi
Woodhead Publishing Series in Electronic and Optical
Materials xv
Preface xxi
Part I Structure and processing of metallic films 1
1 X-ray diffraction for characterizing metallic films 3
B. Ingham, Callaghan Innovation Research Ltd, New Zealand and
M. F. Toney, Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, USA
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Reciprocal space 4
1.3 Phase identification 10
1.4 Chemical order in binary alloys 13
1.5 Defects 21
1.6 Epitaxy and texture 28
1.7 Experimental methods 32
1.8 Conclusion and future trends 36
1.9 References 36
2 Crystal orientation mapping in scanning and
transmission electron microscopes 39
K. Barmak, Columbia University, USA
2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) in the scanning
electron microscope (SEM) 40
2.3 Extraction of relative grain boundary energy from EBSD
crystal orientation maps 47
2.4 Analysis of grain boundary plane distribution (GBPD)
from EBSD crystal orientation maps 53
2.5 Precession electron diffraction (PED) in the transmission
electron microscope (TEM) 54
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
vi Contents
2.6 Determination of grain boundary character distribution
(GBCD) from PED crystal orientation maps 60
2.7 Trace analysis of PED crystal orientation maps 64
2.8 Conclusion and future trends 65
2.9 References 65
3 Structure formation during deposition of
polycrystalline metallic thin films 67
P. B. Barna and G. radnóczI, Institute for Technical Physics and
Materials Science, Hungary
3.1 Introduction 67
3.2 Structural aspects of polycrystalline thin films 70
3.3 Main aspects of the physical vapour deposition (PVD)
preparation methods applied for the synthesis of
polycrystalline metallic thin films 82
3.4 Synthesized view of the structure evolution in
polycrystalline thin films 84
3.5 Fundamental phenomena of structure evolution 93
3.6 Case studies 109
3.7 Conclusion 115
3.8 Acknowledgements 115
3.9 References 116
4 Post-deposition grain growth in metallic films 121
K. Barmak, Columbia University, USA
4.1 Introduction 121
4.2 Normal and abnormal grain growth 125
4.3 How is grain size measured in thin films? 125
4.4 Stagnation of grain growth and the ‘universal’
experimental grain size distribution 127
4.5 Theory and simulation of curvature-driven growth in two
dimensions 130
4.6 Comparison of experiments and two-dimensional
simulations of grain growth with isotropic boundary
energy 134
4.7 Reduction of surface and elastic strain energies 139
4.8 Anisotropy of grain boundary energy 141
4.9 Grain boundary grooving 143
4.10 Solute drag 147
4.11 Triple junction drag 152
4.12 Conclusion 156
4.13 References 156
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
Contents vii
5 Fabrication and characterization of reactive
multilayer films and foils 160
T. P. WeIhs, Johns Hopkins University, USA
5.1 Introduction 160
5.2 Background on self-sustaining reactions and reactive
multilayer films and foils 161
5.3 Fabrication of reactive multilayer films and foils 165
5.4 Microstructures, chemistries and geometries of reactive
multilayers 170
5.5 Chemical energies stored within reactive multilayer films
and foils 173
5.6 Thresholds for the ignition of self-propagating reactions 182
5.7 Reaction propagation, analytical models, and maximum
temperatures 197
5.8 Numerical predictions of reaction propagation: steady and
unsteady 208
5.9 Observations and predictions of rapid intermixing and
phase transformations 218
5.10 Applications of reactive multilayer foils 228
5.11 Conclusion and future trends 231
5.12 Sources of further information and advice 232
5.13 Acknowledgements 233
5.14 References 233
6 Metal silicides in advanced complementary metal-
oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology 244
S-L. zhang, Uppsala University, Sweden and Z. zhang, IBM
Thomas J. Watson Research Center, USA and Uppsala University,
Sweden
6.1 Introduction 244
6.2 State of the art of complementary metal-oxide-
semiconductor (CMOS) technology 249
6.3 Silicide formation 254
6.4 Electrical contacts 276
6.5 Conclusion and future trends 289
6.6 Acknowledgments 290
6.7 References 291
7 Disorder–order transformations in metallic films 302
K. Barmak, Columbia University, USA
7.1 Introduction 302
7.2 The Fe-Pt system 304
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
viii Contents
7.3 The A1 to L1 transformation in FePt 306
0
7.4 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) studies of the A1
to L1 transformation in FePt 307
0
7.5 The A1 to L1 FePt transformation kinetics: the
0
Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov (JMAK) model 312
7.6 The A1 to L1 transformation in FePt: the growth
0
mechanism 314
7.7 Derivation of expressions for the fraction transformed for
three nucleation conditions 315
7.8 The application of the JMAK expressions for the
three nucleation conditions to the A1 to L1 phase
0
transformation in FePt and related ternary alloy films 331
7.9 Time–temperature–transformation (TTT) diagrams 339
7.10 Fraction transformed and TTT diagrams for ultrathin
films 343
7.11 Conclusion 347
7.12 References 348
Part II Properties of metallic films 351
8 Metallic thin films: stresses and mechanical
properties 353
W. D. nIx, Stanford University, USA
8.1 Introduction 353
8.2 Mechanics of thin films and substrates 358
8.3 Measurement of stresses in thin films 367
8.4 Physical origins of stresses in thin films 377
8.5 Intrinsic stresses in vapor deposited polycrystalline
films 384
8.6 Evolution of stresses in films during processing 393
8.7 Techniques for studying mechanical properties of thin
films 396
8.8 Mechanisms controlling strength and plasticity of thin
films 409
8.9 Conclusion 419
8.10 References 419
9 Electron scattering in metallic thin films 422
K. R. coffey, University of Central Florida, USA
9.1 Introduction 422
9.2 Electrical conduction and the Boltzmann transport
equation 423
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014
Contents ix
9.3 Quantitative resistivity size effect models 430
9.4 Experimental review 439
9.5 Conclusion 450
9.6 References 450
10 Magnetic properties of metallic thin films 454
T. Thomson, University of Manchester, UK
10.1 Introduction 454
10.2 Magnetic properties 454
10.3 Anisotropy in thin films 459
10.4 Magnetization processes in thin films 464
10.5 Measuring magnetic thin films 467
10.6 Highly engineered materials 480
10.7 Development of enhanced magnetic thin films 486
10.8 Applications of magnetic thin films 521
10.9 Non-metallic magnetic thin films 527
10.10 Conclusion 531
10.11 References 531
11 Optical properties of metallic films 547
D. shelTon, Plasmonics Inc., USA
11.1 Introduction 547
11.2 The Drude and Sommerfeld models 548
11.3 Deviations from the Drude–Sommerfeld model due to
electronic band structure 554
11.4 Optical properties of metallic thin films at infrared
frequencies 557
11.5 Optical skin effects in thin metallic films 558
11.6 Experimental illustration of the skin effect 565
11.7 Carrier transport in optical versus radio frequency
regimes 572
11.8 Surface-plasmon polaritons 575
11.9 Metamaterials 578
11.10 Nanoantenna infrared sensors 583
11.11 Conclusion 586
11.12 References 587
12 Thermal properties of metallic films 590
P. schellIng, University of Central Florida, USA
12.1 Introduction 590
12.2 Thermal conductivity in metallic films and the
Wiedemann–Franz Law 591
© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2014