Mercury — Cadmium — Lead Handbook for Sustainable Heavy Metals Policy and Regulation

539 Pages·2001·19.266 MB·English

by  Michael J. Scoullos, Gerrit H. Vonkeman, Iain Thornton, Zen Makuch (auth.), Michael J. Scoullos (eds.)

MERCURY- CADMIUM- LEAD
HANDBOOKFORSUSTAINABLEHEAVY METALS POLICYANDREGULATION
ENVIRONMENT&POLICY
VOLUME31
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Mercury - Cadmium - Lead
Handbook for Sustainable
Heavy Metals Policy and Regulation
Edited by
Michael J. Scoullos
University 0/ Athens
Division III
Environmental and Marine
Chemistry Group
Authors:
Michael J. Scoullos, Gerrit H. Vonkeman, Iain Thornton, Zen Makuch
Additional contributors:
S. Arsenikos, V. Constantianos, P. Docx, S. Karavoltsos, K.E. Mac Donald,
B. Mantzara, R. Rautiu, S. Roniotes, A. Sakellari, C. Zeri
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.
A C.!.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-94-010-3896-6 ISBN 978-94-010-0403-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-010-0403-9
Cover design is based on a painting Mi tierra, se cae (My Earth falls), created specially for the
cover of this book by the Peruvian artist Walter Giraldo. The editor wishes to thank his good friend
Walter for permission to use this beautiful print to illustrate the theme of the book.
© Walter Giraldo (cover illustration)
Printed on acid1ree paper
All Rights Reserved
© 2001 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2001
Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 2001
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, e1ectronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, reeording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
v
Table ofcontents (condensed)
Table ofcontents (condensed) V
Table ofcontents vrn
Preface : XVII
Chapter 1- Introduction 1
1.1. Aboutthis book 1
1.2. Environmental policy inthe ED 5
1.3. Heavymetals and the ED 5
Chapter 2- Methodology 7
2.1. General 7
2.2. Specific researchactivities 8
2.3. Practical findings 9
Chapter 3- Mercury 11
3.1. Introduction 11
3.2. World production,resources and reserve bases 14
3.3. World stocks and strategicstockpiles ofmercury 20
3.4. Mercury prices 24
3.5. Factorsthat influencemercurytrade: 23
3.6. Global trade flows ofmercury 25
3.7. Mercury uses inthe worldeconomy 34
3.8. Mercuryflows through the environment 39
3.9. The chlor-alkali industry 42
3.10. Mercuryflow sheets 53
3.11. Technical and economicoptions for policies and legislation 60
3.12. References 66
Chapter 4- Cadmium 71
4.1. Presenceand sources 71
4.2. Cadmium world resources and estimates for reserve bases 75
4.3. Cadmium worldproduction 76
4.4. World stocks and prices ofcadmium I17
4.5. World cadmium supply 126
4.6. World consumption ofcadmium 129
4.7. Cadmium batteries 137
VI Table ofcontents
4.8. Cadmium pigments 206
4.9. Stabilizers 212
4.10. Electroplatingand coating 215
4.11. Cadmium alloys 220
4.12. Cadmium insolar cells 223
4.13. Emissionsfrom Cd production andprocessing inthe EU 226
4.14. Othersources ofcadmium 232
4.15. Cadmium flows and balance inthe EU 264
4.16. References 268
Chapter 5- Lead 273
5.1. Global leadmaterial flows through economy and environment....273
5.2. Primary leadproduction inmarket economy countries 275
5.3. Secondary lead production inmarket economy countries 281
5.4. Lead smelting and refining 284
5.5. Exports and imports ofleadmetal 286
5.6. Lead uses and applications 289
5.7. Production oflead metal inEUMemberCountries.
Smeltingand related emissions 294
5.8. Lead recycling schemes:
A review ofcurrentsystem within the EU. 304
5.9. Lead substitutes and alternatives 313
5.10. References 321
Chapter 6- Key human andenvironmentalrisks associatedwith
mercury, cadmium andlead: (Eco)toxicology of
heavymetals 323
6.1. Human health and environmental risks 323
6.2. Exposure and risk assessment models 342
6.3. Ecotoxicologyofheavy metals 346
6.4. References 354
Chapter 7- Theoretical backgroundforframingpolicies and
legislation on heavy metals 357
7.1. Introduction 357
7.2. Fundamental considerations 358
7.3. EU policy making methodology 370
7.4. References 405
HandbookforSustainable HeavyMetals PolicyandRegulation VII
Chapter8- Policyoptionsfor mercury 409
8.1. Questions directing policyoptions 409
8.2. Long-term mercury policy 410
8.3. Medium-term mercury policy 410
804. Short-term mercurypolicy .412
8.5. Policies inthe USA,the EUand elsewhere 414
8.6. Recommendations fortheEU .421
8.7. References 425
Chapter9- Policyoptionsfor cadmium .427
9.1. Questions directing policyoptions .427
9.2. References 456
Chapter10- Policyoptionsfor lead 457
10.1. Scientific andtechnical basis forunderstandingthe human and
environmental risks oflead 457
10.2. Tentative policy principles 459
10.3. Long-term policy approaches 462
10.4. Medium-term policy considerations 464
10.5. Key instruments for short-term policyaction .465
10.6. European Community policy andregulatory reform measures:
Sound practice and itsImplementation value inthe European
Community over the short-term 493
10.7. Conclusion 505
10.8. References 506
Chapter 11- Conclusions 507
11.1. Introduction 507
11.2. The most serious problems 508
11.3. Polices and legislation 507
1104. Recommendations 515
11.5. References 518
Annex1 The partner institutes 519
Annex2 Authorsandcontributors 521
Acknowledgements 525
VIII
Table ofcontents
Table ofcontents (condensed) v
Table ofcontents VIII
Preface XVII
Chapter 1- Introduction 1
1.1. About this book 1
1.2. Environmentalpolicy intheEU 5
1.3. Heavy metals andthe EU 5
Chapter 2- Methodology 7
2.1. General 7
2.2. Specific research activities 8
2.3. Practical findings 9
Chapter 3- Mercury 11
3.1. Introduction 11
3.2. World production, resources andreserve bases 14
3.2.1 Generaloverview 14
3.2.2 Worldmercuryreserves 16
3.2.3 Mercuryrecovery 17
3.2.4 MercuryproductioninEurope 18
3.3. World stocks and strategic stockpiles ofmercury 20
3.4. Mercury prices 24
3.5. Factors that influence mercury trade 23
3.5.1 Introduction 23
3.5.2 Mercurysupply 23
3.5.3 Mercurydemand 24
3.5.4 Conclusions 24
3.5.5 Theroleoftransitpoints 25
3.6. Global trade flows ofmercury 25
3.6.1 MercuryflowsintheUnitedStates 27
3.6.2 Mercuryflowsintherestoftheworld,excepttheEU 28
3.6.3 MercuryflowsintheEuropeanUnion 32
3.7. Mercury uses inthe world economy 34
3.7.1 Typicalusesofmercury 34
HandbookforSustainable HeavyMetals PolicyandRegulation IX
3.8. Mercuryflows through the environment 39
3.8.1 Introduction 39
3.8.2 Natural flowsofmercury 39
3.8.3 Mercury flowsfromimpuritiesandcontaminants 40
3.8.4 Mercury flowsfromeconomicusesofmercury 42
3.9. Thechlor-alkali industry 42
3.9.1 General overview 42
3.9.2 Recentdevelopments inthechlor-alkali industry 51
3.10. Mercuryflow sheets 53
3.10.1 Introduction 53
3.10.2 AsimplifiedflowsheetfortheUSA 54
3.10.3 AmercuryflowsheetforEU12 56
3.10.4 Amercury flowsheetfortheNetherlands 57
3.10.5 Comparisonsofandconclusionsfromtheflowsheets 58
3.11. Technical and economic options for policies and legislation 60
3.11.1 Introduction 60
3.11.2 Generaloptions forvarioususes 60
3.12. References 66
Chapter 4- Cadmium 71
4.1. Presence and sources 71
4.1.1 General 71
4.1.2 Cadmium presenceinminerals 72
4.1.3 Cadmiumsources intheenvironment... 72
4.1.4 Naturalemissions ofcadmium 73
4.1.5 Cadmium insulphitedeposits;mining 73
4.1.6 Emissionsfrommining(ofnon-ferrousmetalconcentrates) 74
4.2. Cadmium world resources and estimates for reserve bases 75
4.3. Cadmium world production 76
4.3.1 Minecadmium production 77
4.3.2 Refinedcadmium production 79
4.3.3 Cadmium production intheEUMemberStates 87
4.3.4 UnionMiniereandlaVieilleMontagne S.A.:
theworld's majorcadmiumproducers 101
4.3.5 Cadmium recovery 104
4.4. World Stocksand prices ofcadmium 117
4.4.1 Worldstocks 117
4.4.2 Strategicstockpiles 118
4.4.3 Cadmiumprice 119
4.4.4 ImpactofUSstrategic stockpilesalesonprices 124
4.5. World cadmium supply 126
4.6. World consumptionofcadmium 129
4.7. Cadmium batteries 137
X Table ofcontents
4.7.1 Theprinciple-Generaltechnical information 137
4.7.2 Ventedcells 138
4.703 Sealedcells 139
4.7.4 ThetrendsinNi-Cdbatteryproductionanduse 143
4.7.5 Nickel-Cadmiumbatteriesrecycling 164
4.7.6 Theavailabilityanddcvelopmentofsubstitutesandalternatives
totheNi-Cd battery 196
4.7.7 ForecastofcadmiumdemandforNi-Cdbatteries 202
4.8. Cadmium pigments 206
4.8.1 Development,presentlevelsandfate 206
4.8.2 Propertiesandusesofpigments 206
4.803 Restrictionsandtheirimpactonthedevelopment ofalternatives
andtrends 209
4.8.4 Developmentofinorganicalternativestocadmium pigments 210
4.8.5 Organicsubstitutestocadmium pigments 211
4.9. Stabilizers 212
4.9.1 Development,presentlevelsandfate 212
4.9.2 Propertiesanduses 212
4.903 Restrictionsandalternatives 213
4.10. Electroplating and coating 215
4.10.1 Development,presentlevelsandfate 215
4.10.2 Propertiesandmainuses 216
4.1003 Disadvantagesofcadmiumcoatings;environmentalconsequences..217
4.10.4 Restrictionsonandalternativesofcadmiumcoatings 218
4.10.5 Cadmiumcontentinzinccoatingsandotherzincproducts 218
4.11. Cadmium alloys 220
4.11.1 Development,presentlevelsandfate 220
4.11.2 Propertiesandmainuses 220
4.11.3 Restrictionsandalternatives 222
4.12. Cadmium insolar cells 223
4.12.1 Developmentpropertiesandprospects 223
4.12.2 Recyclabilityofphoto-voltaics 225
4.13. Emissions from Cd production and processing inthe EU. 226
4.13.1 Theavailabledata 226
4.13.2 Emissionstotheatmosphere 229
4.13.3 Emissionstotheaquaticenvironment... 230
4.13.4 Emissionstoland 231
4.14. Othersources ofcadmium 232
4.14.1 Ironandsteelmetallurgy 232
4.14.2 Non-ferrousmetalrefining 235
4.14.3 Phosphorites- Phosphateindustry- Phosphatefertilisers 237
4.14.4 Cadmiuminmanure 251