Meggs' History of Graphic Design

623 Pages·2011·151.54 MB·English

by  Philip B. Meggs

Meggs’ Meggs’
The late PHILIP B. MEGGS was a designer, The classic “bible” of graphic design
educator, and author. He was School of the History of history—now fully revised and updated!
Arts Research Professor, Communication Arts
Graphic
and Design Department, at Virginia Common- This is the unrivaled, comprehensive, and
wealth University; visiting faculty at Syracuse Design History of award-winning reference tool on graphic
University and the National College of Art design recognized for publishing excellence
and Design in Dublin, Ireland; and contribut- by the Association of American Publishers.
ing editor to Print magazine. He authored Now, this Fifth Edition of Meggs’ History of
more than a dozen books and 150 articles and Graphic Design offers even more detail and
papers on design and typography, including Graphic breadth of content than its heralded predeces-
a section on graphic design in Encyclopedia sors, revealing a saga of creative innovators,
Britannica. He was inducted into the Art breakthrough technologies, and important de-
Directors Hall of Fame and received its velopments responsible for paving the historic
Educator’s Award for lifetime achievement and paths that define the graphic design experi-
significantly shaping the future of the fields of Design ence. In addition to classic topics such as the
graphic design education and writing. invention of writing and alphabets, the origins
of printing and typography, and postmodern
ALSTON W. PURVIS is Professor of Graphic design, this new Fifth Edition presents new in-
Design at the Boston University College of formation on current trends and technologies
Fine Arts. During his career, he has worked sweeping the graphic design landscape—such
as an instructor at The Cooper Union and the as the web, multimedia, interactive design,
Royal Academy of Fine Arts at The Hague. and private presses, thus adding new layers of
His photographs have been exhibited in depth to an already rich resource.
Amsterdam, London, New York, and Paris.
He is the author of Dutch Graphic Design: With more than 1,400 high-quality images
1918–1945 and H. N. Werkman; and coauthor throughout—many new or newly updated—
of Graphic Design 20th Century; A Century Meggs’ History of Graphic Design, Fifth
of Posters; Wendingen: A Journal for the Arts Edition provides a wealth of visual markers
1918–1932; Creative Type; Dutch Graphic for inspiration and emulation. For profession-
Design: A Century of Innovation; Jan Tsch- als, students, and everyone who works with or
ichold: Posters of the Avant Garde; Posters Fifth Fifth loves the world of graphic design, this land-
NL; Jan Tschichold, Master Typographer: His mark text will quickly become an invaluable
Life, Work and Legacy; The Ballets Russes Edition Edition guide that they will turn to again and again.
and the Art of Design; and Type: A Visual
History of Typefaces and Graphic Styles.
Jacket Design: Cees de Jong
Front cover clockwise from top left: Victor Moscoso, Neon
Rose #12, 1967. Krebs Lithographic Company, poster for the
Cincinnati Industrial Exposition, 1883. Jean-Benoit Lévy, poster
for AIGA, 2002. Fremont rock painting, Utah, c. 2000–1000 BCE.
Back cover clockwise from top left: Jules Chéret, poster,
L’aurelole du midi, Pétrole de Sureté, 1893. Stefan Sagmeister,
Lou Reed Poster, 1996. Johann Gutenberg, page from the
Gutenberg Bible, 1450–1455. Herbert Matter, catalog cover for
Alexander Calder exhibit,
1964.
Experience the history of
graphic design in a variety Philip B. Meggs
of interactive formats and
Alston W. Purvis
study tools.
Philip B. Meggs
Alston W. Purvis
978-1-118-01718-0 4-COLOR

Meggs’
History of
Graphic
Design
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Meggs’
History of
Graphic
Design
Fifth
Edition
Philip B. Meggs
Alston W. Purvis
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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∞
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Meggs, Philip B.
Meggs’ history of graphic design / Philip B. Meggs, Alston W. Purvis. -- 5th ed.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: A history of graphic design. c1998.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-16873-8 (cloth/website); ISBN 978-1-118-01718-0 (ebk.); ISBN
978-1-118-01719-7 (ebk.); ISBN 978-1-118-01774-6 (ebk.); ISBN 978-1-118-
01775-3 (ebk.); ISBN 978-1-118-01776-0 (ebk.)
1. Graphic design (Typography)--History. 2. Book design--History. I. Purvis,
Alston W., 1943- II. Meggs, Philip B. History of graphic design. III. Title. IV. Title:
History of graphic design.
Z246.M43 2012
686.2’209--dc22
2010053089
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Contents
VI Preface Part IV The Modernist Era
VIII Preface to the First Edition Graphic design in the first half of the twentieth century
X Acknowledgments
13
Part I The Prologue to Graphic Design 256 The Influence of Modern Art
The visual message from prehistory through the medieval era
14
01 276 Pictorial Modernism
6 The Invention of Writing
15
02 298 A New Language of Form
22 Alphabets
16
03 326 The Bauhaus and the New Typography
34 The Asian Contribution
17
04 350 The Modern Movement in America
46 Illuminated Manuscripts
Part V The Age of Information
Part II A Graphic Renaissance Graphic design in the global village
The origins of European typography and design for printing
18
05 372 The International Typographic Style
68 Printing Comes to Europe
19
06 390 The New York School
80 The German Illustrated Book
20
07 412 Corporate Identity and Visual Systems
98 Renaissance Graphic Design
21
08 436 The Conceptual Image
122 An Epoch of Typographic Genius
22
Part III The Bridge to the Twentieth Century 460 Postmodern Design
The Industrial Revolution: The impact of industrial technology
upon visual communications 23
482 National Visions within a Global Dialogue
09
144 Graphic Design and the Industrial Revolution 24
530 The Digital Revolution—and Beyond
10
176 The Arts and Crafts Movement and Its Heritage 572 Epilogue
574 Bibliography
11 582 Image Credits
196 Art Nouveau 586 Index
12
232 The Genesis of Twentieth-Century Design
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Preface
Many different methods can be employed to investigate the possess a unique aesthetic vision, a directly identifiable
evolution of graphic design, including exploring aesthetic visual language, and a philosophy that goes beyond mere
movements and ideas, considering economic implications, problem solving. Clearly, many have been unfairly omitted,
analyzing audience sensibility, and evaluating the influ- but there has been a conscious effort to prevent such exclu-
ence of technological innovations such as the invention of sions. The inventive accomplishments of past great graphic
movable type or lithography. Naturally, the visual nature design practitioners have withstood the test of time and
of graphic design is our primary concern, but we must also continue to inform and inspire new generations. Assess-
consider the values of the designers, the impact of their ing graphic design from recent years, however, is a more
work on audiences, and the intrinsic meaning of forms. delicate and complicated task, as there is now a far more
Traditional art history research approaches are in many level playing field. The boundaries between diverse design
ways insufficient for addressing the relatively recent and disciplines have also become less distinct. Provenance has
completely unique history of graphic design. Concentrat- become more complex as well. Particularly during the last
ing only on individual designers and their most important century, many designers created publications in companies
works or placing these designers systematically into schools with rotating staffs and interns. Such designs are the
or overall movements does not adequately fulfill our products of many individuals, and acknowledging all of
needs. Invigorating exchanges among designers is crucial those involved is rarely a viable option.
impetus to the growth of graphic design, and, because of Thus, presenting an overview of current graphic de-
the Internet, this impetus is particularly relevant to graphic sign will always be a difficult undertaking, as any final
design today. chapter will inevitably have no conclusion. As the English
My own preferences and those of Philip B. Meggs philosopher and historian R. G. Collingwood noted in
undoubtedly played a role in determining what or whom 1924, “Contemporary history embarrasses a writer not
to include in this edition, but a decided effort was made only because he knows too much, but also because what he
to arrive at such decisions for reasons other than personal knows is too undigested, too unconnected, too atomic. It is
tastes. Ideally, choices were based on how clearly designs only after close and prolonged reflection that we begin to
impart ideas, aesthetic concepts, or specific graphic forms, see what was essential and what was important, to see why
even when other examples might be deemed more stan- things happened as they did, and to write history instead of
dard. Obstructions in acquiring publication rights to image newspapers.”
reproductions in this edition were also an impediment to The works included in Meggs’ History of Graphic Design
the inclusion of certain works of art. For this reason, some represent only a small part of what was created in any
significant figures have unfortunately been denied their given period. A large number of images in this book denote
rightful place in this book and will most likely be denied schools, movements, styles, or individual approaches, and
inclusion in other publications as well. there are rarely instances when the ultimate accomplish-
Although in the history of graphic design, there are ments of any one designer are presented. A study such as
moments when shared visions defy any attribution to a this one is limited to presenting the work of designers at
single designer, there have also been individual designers specific stages in their careers, and not their total oeuvre.
forging new paths, with distinctive expressive forms and Readers seeking a more complete account should consult
original means for conveying information. A goal of Meggs’ the bibliography for additional exploration.
History of Graphic Design has been to document graphic Meggs’ History of Graphic Design was never meant to be
design innovation and those designers who have made an all-inclusive catalogue, as that would necessitate far
noteworthy contributions to its long-term development. more than one volume. Instead, we have attempted to offer
Selecting exceptionally significant designers, especially a wide-ranging survey of significant stages and accomplish-
from the last thirty years, was a demanding undertaking. ments in the development of graphic design. A guiding
By “significant” I refer to those who not only created out- consideration in deciding what to include was how specific
standing work but also played a major role in the growth of cultures, movements, works, and individuals affected what
the graphic design profession. What characterizes a master graphic design has become today. The current graphic
designer is not easy to define. Such individuals should first design field is much broader than in the past and now
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Preface VII
includes disciplines such as motion graphics, environmental
communications, and new media. Inevitable space restric-
tions prevented a thorough exploration of these exciting
new topics. Although graphic design is obviously closely
related to illustration, photography, printing, and com-
puter technology, it was not feasible to provide a thorough
presentation of these related fields within a single volume.
As with any volume of this scale, some key players and
topics were omitted in previous editions. A vital consider-
ation for this edition, though, was to record developments
since 2004, the date of the most recent images included in
the fourth edition. Although the organization of Meggs’
History of Graphic Design is fundamentally sequential, there
are occasions when periods blend together and share com-
mon characteristics.
For the fifth edition, we added and replaced many
images, and some have been deleted to provide space for William Addison Dwiggins, title pages
additional content. Many designers who merit inclusion from The Power of Print and Men, 1936.
were omitted because of space restrictions, and to them
I offer my apologies. Although we have become a global
culture since the publication of A History of Graphic Design
in 1983, many regions and countries were excluded, also for
space reasons. In this edition Spain, Portugal, Brazil, and
China have been duly included. involved with technology, there are distinct ties binding
William Addison Dwiggins arrived at the phrase graphic the graphic design profession to past crafts and aesthetics.
design in 1922, but it was rarely used until after World Printed media still retains its importance, as witnessed by
War II—until then graphic designers were called “com- the revival of letterpress printing in recent years.
mercial artists.” The field expanded dramatically in the last Graphic design rests upon historical foundations, and
decades of the twentieth century, with technology playing this rich legacy now has an essential place in graphic
an increasingly critical role. As we move forward through design education. During a time when established notions
the digital era, graphic design is undergoing spectacular of graphic design are being questioned, it is vital that
changes. Naturally, future generations of graphic designers new generations of graphic designers have a historical
will challenge existing means of perception and established knowledge of their vocation. In gaining inspiration from
aesthetic concepts. Whenever we assume we stand at the works of the past, be they ancient or recent, designers
vanguard, we realize we are truly only at the beginning of acknowledge the evolution that, in the words of Meggs,
an uncharted landscape. has “enabled designers to achieve a gradual transition from
We are continually confronted by new visual messages, Renaissance design to the modern epoch.”
and those that remain significant must be visually strik- Since it was first published in 1983, A History of Graphic
ing, intellectually stimulating, and deeply genuine. The Design has remained the most complete book in its field.
computer has augmented the pace at which graphic design It is my objective to retain and further contemporize the
problems can be solved and permits designers to work book through the restructuring and enhancements of this
more resourcefully. Projects that in the past would have edition. I hope that the fifth edition, with its expanded
required months are now resolved in a matter of weeks or content and fresh images, will continue to enlighten and
even days. The profession is no longer limited to books, inspire both students and professionals.
posters, and advertisements but now includes motion and
interactive media and more. In spite of being increasingly Alston W. Purvis
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Preface to the First Edition
There is a German word, Zeitgeist, that does not have nineteenth century. Before the Industrial Revolution, the
an English equivalent. It means the spirit of the times, beauty of forms and images that people made were linked
and refers to the cultural trends and tastes that are char- to their function in human society. The aesthetic qualities
acteristic of a given era. The immediacy and ephemeral of Greek pottery, Egyptian hieroglyphics, and medieval
nature of graphic design, combined with its link with the manuscripts were totally integrated with useful values; art
social, political, and economic life of its culture, enable and life were unified into a cohesive whole. The din and
it to more closely express the zeitgeist of an epoch than thunder of the Industrial Revolution turned the world
many other forms of human expression. Ivan Chermayeff, upside down in a process of upheaval and technological
a noted designer, has said: the design of history is the his- progress that continues to accelerate at an ever-quickening
tory of design. pace. By jolting the arts and crafts from their social and
Since prehistoric times, people have searched for ways economic roles, the machine age created a gulf between
to give visual form to ideas and concepts, to store know- people’s material life and their sensory and spiritual needs.
ledge in graphic form, and to bring order and clarity to Just as voices call for a restoration of humanity’s unity with
information. Over the course of history, these needs have the natural environment, there is a growing awareness of
been filled by various people, including scribes, printers, the need to restore human and aesthetic values to the man-
and artists. It was not until 1922, when the outstanding made environment and mass communications. The design
book designer William Addison Dwiggins coined the term arts—architecture and product, fashion, interior, and
graphic design to describe his activities as an individual who graphic design—offer one means for this restoration. Once
brought structural order and more visual form to printed more a society’s shelter, artifacts, and communications
communications, that an emerging profession received an might bind a people together. The endangered aesthetic
appropriate name. However, the contemporary graphic de- and spiritual values might be restored. A wholeness of need
signer is heir to a distinguished ancestry. Sumerian scribes and spirit, reunited through the process of design, can
who invented writing, Egyptian artisans who combined contribute in great measure to the quality and raison d’être
words and images on papyrus manuscripts, Chinese block of life in urban societies.
printers, medieval illuminators, and fifteenth-century This chronicle of graphic design is written in the belief
printers and compositors who designed early European that if we understand the past, we will be better able to
books all became part of the rich heritage and history of continue a culture legacy of beautiful form and effective
graphic design. By and large, this is an anonymous tradi- communication. If we ignore this legacy, we run the risk of
tion, for the social value and aesthetic accomplishments of becoming buried in a mindless morass of a commercialism
graphic designers, many of whom have been creative artists whose molelike vision ignores human values and needs as it
of extraordinary intelligence and vision, have not been burrows forward into darkness.
sufficiently recognized.
History is in large measure a myth, because the historian Philip B. Meggs
looks back over the great sprawling network of human
struggle and attempts to construct a web of meaning.
Oversimplification, ignorance of causes and their effects,
and the lack of an objective vantage point are grave risks
for the historian. When we attempt to record the accom-
plishments of the past, we do so from the vantage point of
our own time. History becomes a reflection of the needs,
sensibilities, and attitudes of the chronicler’s time as surely
as it represents the accomplishments of bygone eras. As
much as one might strive for objectivity, the limitations of
individual knowledge and insights ultimately intrude.
The concept of art for art’s sake, a beautiful object that
exists solely for its aesthetic value, did not develop until the
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