Medieval Muslim Cuisine as A Real-Life Foundation for the Meat and Milk Prohibition in Ibn Ezra's

12 Pages·2017·6.01 MB·English

by  Abraham Ofir Shemesh

religions
ArtiAclre ticle
MMedeidevieavl aMl Musulismli mC uCiusiinsien aes a As AR eRael-aLl-iLfei fFeo Fuonudnadtiaotnio n
Article
Mfeodfro iterhv teah MleM Meauets aaltin madn CMdu Miilskiil nPker PoarhsoiAhbiiRbtiieotaniol -inLn ii fIneb InFb oEnuz Enrazd’rasat ’iso n
for the Meat and Milk Prohibition in Ibn Ezra’s
BiBbilbiclaicl aCl oCmommemnetnartyar y
Biblical Commentary
AbrAahbarmah Oamfi rO Sfhire Smheesmh esh
AbrahamOfirShemesh
IsraeIls rHaeerl iHtaegrei tDageep aDretmpaerntmt, eAnrti,e Al Urineli vUenrsiivteyr, sKitiyr,i aKt iHriaatM HaadMa‘aad, Aa‘rai,e Al 4r0ie7l0 400, 7Is0r0a, eIls;r aaverl;a ahvarmahoas@[email protected].;a c.il;
IsraTeellH.:T e+er9il7t.:a2 +g-09e57D82--e70p95a28r3-t70m932e33n 0t3,3A rielUniversity,KiriatHaMada‘a,Ariel40700,Israel;[email protected];
Tel.:[phone]
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(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)
Received:14May2018;Accepted:23May2018;Published:27May2018
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Accboercdabiunescgea tubosoteth hbe opmtrhoe ddpuireocvtdsau lhcdatisve ehta asrviymea ispliamprr ipolaarroc hpp,ercrotopioeeksr.it niTeghs.em Tmehaeeta mat noedfa tym ooiful kynoigsu grneogcao tg mhoaemat elhtnhedaieelrtdh tibheearc nta hulaasmne blba ommthbea mt, eat,
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tocmooilkkm,i tbi.lekMc, abuuesscleiam uthsseeb ttewhlieoe t vpwerooth dpaurtocttdhsue dcketsird idvoeefr fiarvoegm ofra tothmies stbhaemet tseear omcroiego oiknrei. gdinin. itsownmother’smilk,because
thetwoproductsderivefromthesameorigin.
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InsIenv esIrenav lesprealvalc eeprsalali ncpehlsai scienbs i bhilinisc ahbliicsbo lmbiciambll eiccnaotlam rcymo,meIbnmntaeErnyztr,a arInbyno, t IeEbsnztr haEe znmroaet tehnsoo dttehosel o tgmhiece atmhlpoedrtihonolcoidpgolielcoawgl ihcpearrli enbpcyripinlec iple
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ofbreiballiircseatailclsi staotsircpi eeascstapsn eodctfs la bowibfs l.bicIiabnll ihscitasol rvsiaetrosi roaiuenssd ia nlnatdewr psla.r weItnsa .t hiIoinsn shv,aiIsrb invoauErszi oriaunstpe rrienpstreeenrtpatsrtietothnaetsif,o oInlblson, w IEbinznrg aEi nzprsraieg shpetrnset:sse nthtse the
follofwolilnowg iinnsgi ginhstisg: hts:
(1) The customs and material culture of the Arabs reflect biblical reality, since the countries of
(1) (1T)h e Tchues tcoumstso amnsd a mndat meraiatle rciuallt ucurelt uorf et hoef Athrea bAsr arebfsl ercetf lbeicbt lbiciabll irceaall irteya,l istiyn,c sei nthcee cthoeu ncotruienst roief st hoef the
theBible,includingEretzIsrael,arelocatedintheArabregion,whileChristiancountriesare
BiblBe,i binlec,l uindcilnugd Einrget Ezr Iestrza eIsl,r aaerel, laorcea ltoecda itne dth ine Athrea bA rreagbi roeng, iwonh,i wle hCihler iCshtirainst ciaonu ncotruienst rairees oafr ea odfi faf edrieffnetr ent
of a different cultural division and therefore cannot serve as a basis for reaching conclusions
concerninglifeinbiblicaltimes((IbnEzra1976),LongCommentarytoExodus12: 7;Ibid.,28: 36).
ReligRioenlsig 2io0n1s8 ,2 90,1 x8;, d9,o xi:; FdOoiR: FPOERER P EREERV IREEWV I EW wwww.mwdwp.im.cdopmi./cjooumr/njoalu/rrenlaigl/iroenlisg ions
Religions2018,9,174;doi:10.3390/rel9060174 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions
RReelilgigioionnss 2 2001188, ,9 9, ,x x F FOORR P PEEEERR R REEVVIIEEWW Religions2018,9,174 22 o off 1 122 2of12
ccuullttuurraall ddiivviissiioonn aanndd tthheerreeffoorree ccaannnnoott sseerrvvee aass aa bbaassiiss ffoorr rreeaacchhiinngg ccoonncclluussiioonnss ccoonncceerrnniinngg lliiffee iinn
bbiibblliiccaall ttiimmeess ((((IIbbnn EEzzrraa 11997766)),, LLoonngg CCoommmmeennttaarryy ttoo EExxoodduuss 1122:: 77;; IIbbiidd..A,, 2n288:e: x33a66m)).. pAAlnen o eefxxtaahmmisppilnleet e oorfpf trthheitisas t iveoutlookcanbefoundinIbnEzra’scommentaryonExodus3:22.
iinntteerrpprreettaattiivvee o ouuttllooookk c caann b bee f foouunndd i inn I Ibbnn E Ezzrraa’’ss c coommmmeennttaarryy o onn E Exxoodduuss T3 3:h: 2 2e22b.. T iTbhhleiec b abilibbtleliicxcatalrl t eteelxaxttt er rseeltlahattaeetss b eforetheexodusfromEgypt,GodinstructedMosestocommand
tthhaatt b beeffoorree t thhee e exxoodduuss f frroomm E Eggyypptt,, G Goodd i innssttrruucctteedd M Moosseess t too c coommmmaanndd t thhteeh I eIssrIrasareeallieittleie tw ewowommomeenne nt toot b oboobrrorrororwwow silverutensilsandclothingitemsfromtheEgyptianwomen: “But
ssiillvveerr uutteennssiillss aanndd ccllootthhiinngg iitteemmss ffrroomm tthhee EEggyyppttiiaann wwoommeenn:: ““BBuutt eeaaecchahc hwwwoommomaanna nsshhsahallall l alasasksk k oooff f hhheeerrr neighbor,andofherwhosojournsinherhouse,jewelryofsilver
nneeiigghhbboorr,, aanndd ooff hheerr wwhhoo ssoojjoouurrnnss iinn hheerr hhoouussee,, jjeewweellrryy ooff ssiillvveerr aanndd ooff a ggnoodllddo,, f aagnnoddl d cc,lloaotnthhdiinncglgo,, t aahnnidndg yy,oaounu d youshallputthemonyoursonsandonyourdaughters;thusyou
sshhaallll ppuutt tthheemm oonn yyoouurr ssoonnss aanndd oonn yyoouurr ddaauugghhtteerrss;; tthhuuss yyoouu sshhaallll ddseehssapploloidill e ttshhpeeo EiElgtghyyepptEtiiaganynsps..t””i a TnThsh.ii”ss ThisEnglishtranslationisfromtheRevisedStandardVersion(RSV).
EEnngglliisshh ttrraannssllaattiioonn iiss ffrroomm tthhee RReevviisseedd SSttaannddaarrdd VVeerrssiioonn ((RRSSVV)).. This instruction raises the question: Why would the Egyptian women lend the Israelite
TThhiiss iinnssttrruuccttiioonn rraaiisseess tthhee qquueessttiioonn:: WWhhyy wwoouulldd tthhee EEggyyppttiiaann wwoommweenno mlleenendnd tvthhaeel u IIsasrbraaleeellipitteoe swwsoeosmmsieeonnn s? Was this customary? Ibn Ezra, from his personal experience
vvaalluuaabbllee ppoosssseessssiioonnss?? W Waass t thhiiss ccuussttoommaarryy?? IIbbnn E Ezzrraa,, f frroomm hhiiss ppeerrssoonnaall eexaxpnpederrikieennnoccewe a laenndddg k kennooofwwtlhleeeddgMgee u oosffl im culture, claims in his long commentary on this verse that the
tthhee MMuusslliimm ccuullttuurree,, ccllaaiimmss iinn hhiiss lloonngg ccoommmmeennttaarryy oonn tthhiiss vveerrssee tthhaatt tpthhheee pnphohmeenneoonmmoneennooofnnle onofdf lilenengnddpiinongsgs essionstoneighbors,evenvaluablepossessions,iscommonamong
ppoosssseessssiioonnss ttoo nneeiigghhbboorrss,, eevveenn vvaalluuaabbllee ppoosssseessssiioonnss,, iiss ccoommmmoonn aammoonngg MMMuuusssllliiimmm w wwooommmeeennn::: “ ““BBBeeecccaaauuussseee i ititt i sthewomen’scustomtoborrowfromtheirneighborsmorethanis
iiss tthhee wwoommeenn’’ss ccuussttoomm ttoo bboorrrrooww ffrroomm tthheeiirr nneeiigghhbboorrss mmoorree tthhaann iiss cccuuussstttooommmaaarrryyy aaammmooonnnggg t ththheee m mmeenenna rticlesofjewelry,goldandsilver,toplaceontheneckoftheboys
aarrttiicclleess ooff jjeewweellrryy,, ggoolldd aanndd ssiillvveerr,, ttoo ppllaaccee oonn tthhee nneecckk ooff tthhee bbooyyss aanandnd d gggiirrilrlssl s [[…[….].] .aan]ndadn tdthhitishs iiisss i tsthhteeh ecurrent-daycustominthelandofIshmaelbutnotinthelandof
ccuurrrreenntt--ddaayy ccuussttoomm iinn tthhee llaanndd ooff IIsshhmmaaeell bbuutt nnoott iinn tthhee llaanndd ooff tthheteh ueunnuccniircrcicurucmmumcciiscseiesdde.d.”” . ”IIbbInbn n EEEzzzrraraa emphasizesthatlendingfemininepossessionsisnotcustomaryin
eemmpphhaassiizzeess tthhaatt lleennddiinngg ffeemmiinniinnee ppoosssseessssiioonnss iiss nnoott ccuussttoommaarryy iinn CChhrriissCttiiahanrni scctooiuaunnntctrroiieuessn atanrnided s tthahenerdreeftfohorereer e foreknowledgeoftheMuslimcultureanditsmannerismsmight
kknnoowwlleeddggee o off t thhee M Muusslliimm c cuullttuurree a anndd i ittss m maannnneerriissmmss m miigghhtt f fuurrtthheerr c cllaarriiffyy t thfhuee rv tvheerersrseec ( (lsaseereei fa yallsstoho Se Siivmmeoronsne 2 2(00s1e13e3,, a lsoSimon2013,pp. 337–39).
pppp.. 333377––3399))..
(2) ItisnotalwayspossibletolearnfrommedievalArabcultureaboutthebiblicalera,asfromthe
((22)) IItt iiss nnoott aallwwaayyss ppoossssiibbllee ttoo lleeaarrnn ffrroomm mmeeddiieevvaall AArraabb ccuullttuurree aabboouuttA tthrhaeeb bbciiobbnlliiqccaualel esetrrsaa,f, r aoassm ffrrtohomme s tethhveee nthcenturyon,transformationsareevidentintheconductpracticed
AArraabb ccoonnqquueessttss ffrroomm tthhee sseevveenntthh cceennttuurryy oonn,, ttrraannssffoorrmmaattiioonnss aarree eevviiddeennitnt iintnh ttehhece o ccuoonnndtdruiueccstt popfrratachctetiiccBeeiddb liienn. Therefore,insomecases,forexampleinthematteroftheancient
tthhee c coouunnttrriieess o off t thhee B Biibbllee.. T Thheerreeffoorree,, i inn s soommee c caasseess,, f foorr e exxaammppllee i inn t thhee m maatEtttegeryr o poftf it tahhnees a ’ancncocinieetnnetmt E Epggtyyfppotrtiiaaenansts’i’ n gmeat,itisnecessarytodistinguishbetweentheancientEgyptian
ccoonntteemmpptt ffoorr eeaattiinngg mmeeaatt,, iitt iiss nneecceessssaarryy ttoo ddiissttiinngguuiisshh bbeettwweeeenn tthhee aannccuciileetnuntrt e EEaggnyydppittniiahanna b cciuutalltntuutrsreeo afantnhdde MuslimregionwhofollowthelawsoftheQuran.IbnEzracontends
iinnhhaabbiittaannttss ooff tthhee MMuusslliimm rreeggiioonn wwhhoo ffoollllooww tthhee llaawwss ooff tthhee QQuurraann.. tIhIbbannt tEEhzzerrarae cscoeornnvtteaentnidodsns s tthohafattt h ttheheae n cientEgyptiansconcerningconsumptionofmeatarenotrelevant
rreesseerrvvaattiioonnss ooff tthhee aanncciieenntt EEggyyppttiiaannss ccoonncceerrnniinngg ccoonnssuummppttiioonn ooff mmeeaatt aafroreer nMnooutt srrleeilmleevsvaainnntt c fofoonrr t MeMmuupssloliirmmarssy Egypt,andareratherclosertothecustomoftheIndians—Hindus
iinn c coonntteemmppoorraarryy E Eggyypptt,, a anndd a arree r raatthheerr c clloosseerr t too t thhee c cuussttoomm o off t thhee I Innddiiaannsso——rJHHaiiinnnsdd—uusws o ohrro J Jadaiionnsns——otwwehahtoom d deooa t. Hewrites: “ForalltheshepherdsaredetestabletotheEgyptians”,
nnoott eeaatt mmeeaatt.. HHee wwrriitteess:: ““FFoorr aallll tthhee sshheepphheerrddss aarree ddeetteessttaabbllee ttoo tthhee EEggiynypdptiticiaaantnissn””g,, itinhndaditiccianattitinnhggo stthehadatta iyinns theEgyptianswouldnoteatmeatandwouldnotpermitaperson
tthhoossee ddaayyss tthhee EEggyyppttiiaannss wwoouulldd nnoott eeaatt mmeeaatt aanndd wwoouulldd nnoott ppeerrmmiitt aa ppteoerrsssoaocnnr ittfiooc sesaagccroriaiffiticsceea gngodoaastthss e aaennpdd, asoccurswiththepeopleofIndiatoday. Onewhoisashepherdis
sshheeeepp,, aass ooccccuurrss wwiitthh tthhee ppeeooppllee ooff IInnddiiaa ttooddaayy.. OOnnee wwhhoo iiss aa sshheepphheerrdd iisds dedteeettseetssettdeeddf o fforordr drdirrniinknkikniingnggm mmilikillk.k.T. hepeopleofIndiadonoteatnordrinkanythingoriginatingfrom
TThhee ppeeooppllee ooff IInnddiiaa ddoo nnoott eeaatt nnoorr ddrriinnkk aannyytthhiinngg oorriiggiinnaattiinngg ffrroomm lliivvilininvggin aagnnaiimnmiamallsas lttsoo t tothhtihiss i dsdadayay y ((ss(eseeee e (IbnEzra1976),commentarytoGenesis46: 34,andcomparetohis
((IIbbnn EEzzrraa 11997766)),, ccoommmmeennttaarryy ttoo GGeenneessiiss 4466:: 3344,, aanndd ccoommppaarree ttoo hhiiss lloonngg ccoloommnmgmceeonnmttaarmryye tntoot a EErxyxootdoduuEssx 8o8:: d 22u22s)).. 8 :22). Indeed,accordingtothelawsofIslam,Muslimsarepermitted
IInnddeeeedd,, aaccccoorrddiinngg ttoo tthhee llaawwss ooff IIssllaamm,, MMuusslliimmss aarree ppeerrmmiitttteedd ttoo eteaoatte acctlleecalaenna nmmmeeaeatat t((h(hhaaallalaall l لللالاحَحَ)))... Moreover,eatingmeatispartofMuslimrituals,forexampleduring
MMoorreeoovveerr,, eeaattiinngg mmeeaatt iiss ppaarrtt ooff MMuusslliimm rriittuuaallss,, ffoorr eexxaammppllee dduurriinngg EEEiididd aaall-l-A-AAdddhhhaaa (((ىىححضضلألأاا ددييعع = == t ththheee“ SacrificeFeast”,whichhonorsthewillingnessofAbrahamsacrifice
““SSaaccrriiffiiccee FFeeaasstt””,, wwhhiicchh hhoonnoorrss tthhee wwiilllliinnggnneessss ooff AAbbrraahhaamm ssaaccrriiffiiccee hhiissh sissoonsno,, n aas,s a aasnna anaccatt c ootffo oofbboeebddeidieenineccneec etoGod’scommand).
ttoo GGoodd’’ss ccoommmmaanndd))..
(3) Incertaincases,ancientculturalcontinuitywasnotmaintainedinIslamiccountriesandwasthe
((33)) IInn cceerrttaaiinn ccaasseess,, aanncciieenntt ccuullttuurraall ccoonnttiinnuuiittyy wwaass nnoott mmaaiinnttaaiinneedd iinn IIssrlleaaammliiticcy ccioonuuCnnthtrrriieiessst aiaannndd E wwuarasos p tthheeet hatreflectedbiblicallife. Oneexampleisbeds,whichwerefairly
rreeaalliittyy iinn CChhrriissttiiaann EEuurrooppee tthhaatt rreefflleecctteedd bbiibblliiccaall lliiffee.. OOnnee eexxaammppllee iiss bbeheddigss,h, w.whGhiiecchnh e wswieserr4ee 9 f:faai2irr9llyys hphieiggahkh.s. of Jacob who drew his feet up into the bed before his death. In
GGeenneessiiss 4499:: 2299 ssppeeaakkss ooff JJaaccoobb wwhhoo ddrreeww hhiiss ffeeeett uupp iinnttoo tthhee bbeedd bbeeffoorree hhhiisis s ddceeoaamtthhm.. IIennn hthaiisrs y ccooomnmmtmheiensntvtaaerrryys e ,IbnEzraclaimsthatEgyptianbedswerehigh,similartobedsin
oonn tthhiiss vveerrssee,, IIbbnn EEzzrraa ccllaaiimmss tthhaatt EEggyyppttiiaann bbeeddss wweerree hhiigghh,, ssiimmiillaarr ttoo Cbbehedrdisss tiiinna n CCEhhurririssottipiaaenna nEEucuorrouopnpeteraainen s ,whichwaswhyJacobhadtodrawthemup: “Hedrewhisfeetup
ccoouunnttrriieess,, wwhhiicchh wwaass wwhhyy JJaaccoobb hhaadd ttoo ddrraaww tthheemm uupp:: ““HHee ddrreeww hhiiss ffeeeientt t uouppt h iinentbtooe tdthh—ee b bbeeecdda—u—sbebeeacctaafiuurssseet hesatonthebedwithhisfeethangingdownasisthecustomtoday
aatt ffiirrsstt hhee ssaatt oonn tthhee bbeedd wwiitthh hhiiss ffeeeett hhaannggiinngg ddoowwnn aass iiss tthhee ccuussttoomm ttooddaianyy t ihinne tthEhede o EEmddoiotmmeicittoee u ccnoouturninettrsri,ieensso,, tlikethebedsoftheIshmaelites[=ArabsorMuslims]”. Historical
nnoott lliikkee tthhee bbeeddss ooff tthhee IIsshhmmaaeelliitteess [[==AArraabbss oorr MMuusslliimmss]]””.. HHiissttoorriiccaall sssooouuurrrccceeesss iiinnndddeeeeeeddd iiinnndddiiicccaaattteee ttthhhaaattt medievalEuropeanbeds,particularlyinthehomesofthewealthy,
mmeeddiieevvaall E Euurrooppeeaann bbeeddss,, ppaarrttiiccuullaarrllyy i inn t thhee hhoommeess o off t thhee wweeaalltthhyy,, w weerree w llaarergrgeee,, l wawrigiddeee,,, w aanniddde hh,iiaggnhhd.. TThhhiegeshsee. These massive beds were usually canopy beds that had posts in
mmaassssiivvee bbeeddss wweerree uussuuaallllyy ccaannooppyy bbeeddss tthhaatt hhaadd ppoossttss iinn tthheeiirr ffoouurr ccoorrnnteehrrses i drdrfraoapupereddc o wwrniitethhr s ccudurrrtataapiinendss fwfoorirt hcurtainsforprivacy(onthebedsinEuropeinMedievalTimessee
pprriivvaaccyy ( (oonn t thhee b beeddss i inn E Euurrooppee i inn M Meeddiieevvaall T Tiimmeess s seeee ( (DDoonnnneellllyy a anndd D Diieeh(hDll 1 i1e99h99l99a,, pn pd.. 7 7D99;o; J Jnoonhhennlslsyttoo1nn9 2 920901,11p1,., 79;Johnston2011,vol. I,p. 275)).
vvooll.. II,, pp.. 227755))))..
ThispaperdiscussesIbnEzra’sinterpretationexplainingthebiblicalprohibitionagainsteating
TThhiiss ppaappeerr ddiissccuusssseess IIbbnn EEzzrraa’’ss iinntteerrpprreettaattiioonn eexxppllaaiinniinngg tthhee bbiibblliiccaall pprroohhiibbiittiioonn aaggaaiinnsstt eeaattiinngg
meatwithmilkinlightoftheculinaryandmedicalrealityinhistime. Intheprocess,Ishalldiscuss
mmeeaatt wwiitthh mmiillkk iinn lliigghhtt ooff tthhee ccuulliinnaarryy aanndd mmeeddiiccaall rreeaalliittyy iinn hhiiss ttiimmee.. IInn tthhee pprroocceessss,, II sshhaallll ddiissccuussss
theculinaryandnutritionalconceptionsutilizedbyIbnEzratoexplaintheprohibitionbasedontheir
tthhee c cuulliinnaarryy a anndd n nuuttrriittiioonnaall c coonncceeppttiioonnss u uttiilliizzeedd b byy I Ibbnn E Ezzrraa t too e exxppllaaiinn t thhee p prroohhiibbiittiioonn b baasseedd o onn t thheeiirr
sourcesinthemedievalculinaryandmedicalliteratureofMuslimsandJews.
ssoouurrcceess iinn tthhee mmeeddiieevvaall ccuulliinnaarryy aanndd mmeeddiiccaall lliitteerraattuurree ooff MMuusslliimmss aanndd JJeewwss..
Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 12
Religions2018,9,174 3of12
RReleigliigoinosn 2s 021081,8 9, ,9 x, xF OFORR P EPEERER R REVEVIEIWEW 3 3o fo 1f 21 2
2. The Prohibition of Cooking Meat with Milk—A Review of the Interpretations
2.2 T. Thhe eP Pror2oh.hibTibihtiietoiPonrn oo ofh fCi bCoiootiokokinninoggf M CMeoaeotak twi wnigtihtMh M Meialitklwk——iAthA RM Reivelvikei—wew Ao ofR ft hetvhei eIe nIwntetorefprptrherteeatItanitoitonenrsp sr etations
The prohibition against cooking a kid goat in milk is mentioned in the Bible three times, but no
TThhe ep prorohhibTibihtiiteoionpn ra ogahgaiiabniinsttsi otc nocooaokgkianiingng sa t ak ckiodiod gk goinoagta tia nin km imdiliklgk io sia smt miennentmitoiionlknedeisd i nmin te htnhet eiBo Binbiebledl eti hnthretrhee eet itBmimiebsele,s b, tbuhutr etn enoot i mreesa,sbount is given (Exodus 23: 19; Ibid., 34: 26; Deuteronomy 14: 21). Over the generations,
reraesaosonn isi sn gogivirveenean so (En(Exioxsoddguiusv se 2n32:3( E: 1x91o;9 d; IubIsbidi2d.3, .:, 31439:4 ;: 2I62b;6i ;d D.,De3ue4ute:treo2ron6n;oomDmyey u t1e41r:4o :n 2o12m)1.) .y OO1v4ve:re r2 t1ht)he. e gOgevneenerrearttahitoeiongnse,s n, ercaotmiomnse,ntators, Jewish philosophers, and researchers have offered various explanations for the
cocommmmenentatctaootmorsr,ms ,J eeJnwetwaistiohsrh sp ,phJehiwlioliossoshoppphhheirelsor,ss ,oa pnahnded rr ser,seaesnaedracrrhcehesreesra srh chhaevarves eho aoffvfefereerodeffd ev rveadrairoviouaursi soe uxespxeplaxlnapnalataintoiaontniso snf osforf rot rhttheh ee ppuurrppoosese of the prohibition and its sources. Several Jewish scholars claimed that cooking the meat of
ppuurprpooses eo ofo fft htthhe eep pprorroohhhibiibbitiiittoiioonnn a anannddd i tiistts ss sosoouuurrcrceceses.s .S. SeSevevveererarala llJ JeJewewwiisishshh ss cschchhooollaalrarsrs scc lclaaliaimmimeededd tt hhthaatat tcc ocoooookkkiinninggg tt hhthee emm meeaaetta too fof af kaid kgido agtoat in its mother’s milk is an immoral act and that the purpose of the prohibition is symbolic,
a ak kidid g gooata itin nin iit tsist msm mootothhteherre’’rss’ smm miillkiklk iis si asa nnan iim mimmmmoororaarlla alac cattc atan nadnddt th htahattat tth htehep ep upururppropososeeso eof oft fht htehep epr pororhohibhibiitbiitoiitonionin si sis sys ymsymbmboboliolcil,ci,tc o, dtios tdaniscteance one from cruelty and gluttony (Philo 1984, chap. VIII, pp. 249–51; ben Meir 1997, Exodus,
toto d disitsatnanceco eon onenef erfo rfomrommc rc urcureueltleytlytay an nadndgd gl uglutltutottontonyny(y P( P(hPhilhioliol1o 19 91889448,,4c c,h hcpha.paVp. IV. IVII,IIIpI,I pp, .pp2p. 42. 942–945–915–;15b;1 eb; nbeneMn M eMierier1i 9r1 991799,79E,7 Ex, Eoxdoxodudus,usp,s ,. 5p8;. I5b8i;d I.b,id., Deuteronomy, p. 189).
pp. 5. 85;8 I; bIbidid.D, .D,e Duetueeutretorenoroonmnoomym,ypy, .p, 1p. 81. 981)98.)9.) . Maimonides (R. Moses ben Maimon, Rambam, 1138–1204) claimed that cooking meat in milk is
MMaiamimoonnidiMdesea s(i Rm(R. oM. nMoidoseessse s(b Rbe.neMn M Moasiaemismobonenn, R, MRamaamimbbaomanm,, 1,R 11a31m83–8b1–a21m0240,)41 )1c l3ca8lia–mi1me2de0d4 t) htchaltaa tci mocooeokdkintihngag mt mceoaeota kti niinn mg mimliklek ia sit si namn iildkoilsatrous act and that the purpose of the prohibition is to distance one from unacceptable customs
anan id idoolaltartoraounus isad caotcl ata natrndod uth sthaatac ttth tahen epd puturhprapotostesh eoe ofp ftuh threp epo prsoreohohibfibitthiitoeionpn irs oi stho tio bd iditsiiotsantnaincsect eoo ondnei esft rfaornomcme u ounnnaecaccfercopemptatbaublnel aecc uccusetspottomambsl se c(uMstaoimmsonides 1991, p. 392; ben Gershon 1547, Exodus, p. 98b; Abarbanel 1997, Exodus, p. 218). Others
(M(Maiamimoonnid(iMdesea s1i m9199o19n,1 ip,d p.e 3.s 931299;2 9b; 1be,nepn G. G3e9res2rhs;hobonenn 1 5G145e74r,7s E,h Exooxnod1du5us4,s7 p,, p.E 9.x 89ob8db; uA; sAb,bapra.br9ba8nabne;leA 1l b91a99r79b,7 aE, nExeoxlod1du9us7,s9 p,, p.E 2.x 12o81d)8.u) O.s O,tphth.ere2sr1 s8 ).cOlatihmeresd that the prohibition is based on medical/health reasons, as cooking the two foods together
clcaliamimeded t htchaltaa tit mhthee edp prtohrohahitbitbihtiietoionpn rio sih sb ibbasaitesideod no oinsn mb maesdeedidciacolan/lh/mheaeelatdlhtih cra erlae/sahoseonansl,st h,a sar sec aocsooooknkinsi,ngag ts htcheo eto wtkwoino fg ofoothodeds tstw otogogefteohtohedre rs topgreotdhuecres harmful culinary combinations (Maimonides 1991, p. 392).
pprorodduucecse shp harraomrdmufucfule slc uchulailnrimnarafyruy lc occoummlibnbinairnaytaitocioonmns s(b M(iMnaaiatmiimoononsnid(iMdesea s1i m9199o19n,1 ip,d p.e 3.s 931299)29.) 1. ,p. 392). Researchers devoted quite a few papers to the reasons for and background of the prohibition as
RReseesaeracrhchereRsre sds deevaervocothetdeerd qs quduietievt eoa tafe efdwewq pu paitpaeperaesrf ste otwo t htphea erp ereaersasostonons stfh ofeor rar enaandsd ob nbacsakcfkgogrroraounundndd bo aofc ftk htgher epo pruornohdhibiobitfiitotihonen a psa rso hviibeiwtioend through the Bible and the cultures of the biblical era (Hara 1978, 1979, 1983; Luria 1993;
vvieiweweded t htharosrouvugieghwh t ehtdhe etB hBirbiobluel ega hnandthd et htBhei ebc luceultalutnurderset sho eof fct uhthelt eub rbiebisblilociafclat hle erearb ai( bH(lHiacraaarl ae1 r91a7987(H,8 ,1a 91r79a97n,9 1,1 991789838,;3 1;L 9Lu7u9ri,rai1 a91 891399;39L;3 ;u riMai1lg99ro3m; 1985; Ratner and Zuckerman 1986; Labuschagne 1992; Cooper 2012).
MMiliglgroromm 1 M9189i58lg;5 rR; oRamtant1ne9re 8ra 5na;ndRd Za tZunucekcrkeRremormbaenarn t1 1919898686;6 ;L; LLaababbuuusscschchhaagaggnnnee e1 1919999292;2 ;C; CCoooooopppeerer r2 2020101212)2).) .. The Scottish anthropologist James George Frazer (1854–1941) claimed that the prohibition
TThhe eS cSocotttiTtsihshh ea naSncthothrtotriopsphooloalogngitshits rtoJ apJmaomleoseg siG sGteoeJaorgmrgee esF FrGarzaeezorer rg( e1(81F58r45a–4z1–e91r4914()11 8)c 5lc4al–iam1im9e4de1d )t hcthalata itmt htehed ep tprhoraohthibtibhitieitoionpn ro hsitbeimtiomned from an aversion (taboo) to certain usages of milk for fear of harm to the cows, because of
stsetmemmmeded fs rftoreommm ma naen da vafrveoremsrisoiaonnn (a t(avtbaebrosooioo) n)t ot(o tca ecbreotraotia)nitn ou uscaesgartgeasei nso ofu fms amiglikelsk f ooffor mrf efiaelkra rof oof rfh fhaeraamrrmo tf otho ta htrhem ec otcoowwtsh,se b, cbeocewacuasus,ebs eeo cofa fu stehoef styhmepathetic/magical bond between the animal and its milk (Frazer 1919, vol. III, pp. 118–19, 161–62).
ththe es ysymmppatashythemteitcpi/cam/tmhaegatgiicciac/la mbl boanogndicd ba lbetebwtoweneednenb t ehtthew ea enaeninmimtahla eal naandndi imt ista sml mailnikldk ( Fi(tFrsarzmaezirel rk1 91(19F91r,9a v,z voerlo. l1I. I9III1,I 9p, ,ppvp. o1. l11.81I–8II1–,91p,9 p1, 61.161–116–826–)21.) 9. ,1O6t1h–m62a)r. Keel, scholar of Ancient Near Eastern art and its relationship to the biblical text, suggested
OOththmmara rK KeOeetleh,l m,s csahcrhoolKalera ero lof, sfA cAhnncoicleainernto tNf NAeaenrac rEi eEansattseNtrenren aa rratEr taa nastnded rin tist asrr ertleaaltanitodioninstshshirpeip lta otto ito htnhes ehb ibipbibltilcoiactlah lte etxebtxi,bt ,sl uiscugagglgetesetxsettde,d su gtgheast tceodoking meat with milk not only breaches the intimate mental connection between the mother
ththata tc ocoookkintihngag mt mceoaeota ktw iwnitgihth mm meialiktlk wn noitoth to monnliyllky b nbreoraetcaohcnhelsey st bhthree eia nicnthitmeimsattahet eem imnetneintmatlaa lct eoconmnnenencettciatolioncn ob nbentewetwceteeionenn t hbthee etmw moeotehtnherteh r emanodt hheerr young but also symbolically disrupts the expression of divine generosity and cosmic stability
anandd h here ry yoaounundngg hb eburut yta olasulosno sg ysbymumbtboaollislcioaclasllyylmy d dibsiorsluriucpaptlstl syt htdhei ees rxeupxppretrssestshisoieonen ox ofp fdr edivsisviniionen eg ogefnendereivoroisnisteiytyg a enannded rc oocsosimstymicai cns tdsatbacbiolisiltmiyty ic smtaabniliifteysted in the act of nursing (Keel 1980, pp. 54–141). The Biblical scholar and commentator Moshe
mmananifiefsetsetdemd ian inn ti htfhees eat ecatdc to iofn fn tnuhuresraisncingtg o( Kf(Kneueeler s1l i91n89g08,0( Kp, ppeep. l5. 1459–481–041,14p)1.p) T.. Th5he4 e–B 1Bi4bi1bli)lc.iacTla hsl ceshcBhoiolballraic raa nalndsdc ch ocoomlmamrmaennendtattcaootorm rM mMoeosnhsthea eto rDMaovsidh e(Umberto) Cassuto (1883–1951) showed that cooking meat with milk was a practice customary
DDavavidid ( U(UmDmbabevreitrdoto)( )CU Camsasbsuseutrottoo () 1(C8188a38s–3su1–91to5915()11 8)s h8sh3o–ow1we9de5d1 t) htshahta otc wocooeokdkintihngag mt mceoaeota ktw iwnitgihth mm meilaikltk ww waitsah sa m ap iprlakrcawtcitcaiecs eca ucpustrsoatomctmiacraeyrcy u sitno manacriyent cults, for example that of the Goddess Anat (Cassuto 1958, p. 40; on the Goddess Anat see
inin a nanciceinent itcn uculatnlst,cs if, eofnor tre cxeuaxlmatmsp,plfeol ert hethaxtaa tom of pft hltehe teGh Gaotododdfdetsehsse sA GAnonadta dt( Ce(CsassasAsusnutoato t1 (91C59a85s,8 sp,u p. t4.o 041;0 9o; 5on8n ,t hpthe. eG4 0Go;ododdndetsehsse sA GAnonadta dts eesees se A(nDaatys e1e999, pp. 36–43)).
(D(Dayay 1 919999,9( Dp, ppapy. 3. 1639–694–934,)3p)).)p . . 36–43)).
3. Ibn Ezra’s Approach: “The Scriptures Speak of the Present”
3.3 I. bIbnn E Ezrzar3’a.s’ IsAb AnpppEprzorroaaca’shch:A “: pT“pThrheo eaS cSchrci:rpi“ptTuthureerseS sSc Spripepaetkauk roe ofs ftS htphe eePa Prkerseoesfnetnth”te ” Present”
In his long and short commentaries on Exodus 23: 19, Ibn Ezra claims that the reason for the
InIn h hisi sl olonngIg na nahndisd sl hoshnoorgtr atc nocdommsmhmeonernttatcraoiremise smo onen nE tExaoxriodedususo sn2 32E:3 x:1 o91d,9 ,uI bIsbn2n E3 E:zrz1ar9 a,c IlcablianmimEs zst rhtahacta ltta htihme ers ertaehsaaostontn hf oefor rrte htahes eo npfororhtihbeition of cooking meat with milk is educational/moral. Ideologically, the prohibition is included
pprorohhibibitiitoionpn roo ofh fci ocbooitokiokinningog mf mceoaeota ktw iwnitgihth mm meialiktlk wis i iset dhedumucaicltakitoiionsnaelad/lmu/mcoaortairola.nl I.a dIlde/oemoloologrgiacilac.laIldlyley, ot, hltoheg epi pcroarlohlhyib,ibitthiitoeionpn ris oi shin iinbclicutliudodnedeid s inacmluodnegd other restrictions concerning animals that are aimed at preventing cruel human behavior, such
amamoonngg o othtahemre rro ernsegtsrtoircittchitoeiornnsre scs octonrinccectireonrnninsingcg oa nnacnimeirmanlaisnl stgh tahanta iatm raera eals iamtimheadetd aa rta ept pareirmveveenedntiatnitngpg cr recurvueelen hlt ihunumgmacnraun be belhehhauvamvioiaorn,r s,b useuchhcah v ioars, tshuec hprohibition against slaughtering an animal and its offspring on the same day (Leviticus 22: 28), or
asa st hthe ep prorhoahisbibitthiitoeionpn ar gaogahiainbinsitts itso lsnaluaauggghahtientresirntingslg aa unan ga hnatniemirmianla gla naandnd ia tnist isom fofafsflpsaprinrnidngg iot snon ot hftfhes pes rasimanmge eod dnayaty h( Le(Lesveavimtiitceiucdus as2 y22:2( 2L: 82e)8v,) io,t iorc ru sS2h2i:lu2a8c)h, ha-Ken, the Jewish law that enjoins one to send away the mother bird before taking her young
SShihliuluacahc hh aho-aKr-KeSnehn,i tl, huthaec eJh eJwehwai-siKhsh elna l,watw ht hethaJtae etw neinjsojhoinilnsa swo onnteh eta otto se esnnejndod ian waswaoyany et httheo em smeonothdtheare wrb biariydrd tbh beefeofmorero ett ahtkaekirninbggi hr dhereb rye yofoouurnengtg a koinrg hhere reggs (Deuteronomy 22: 6).
oor rh here re gegggsy so( Du(Dneugeutoetrreorhonenoromemgygy 2s 22(:2D 6: e)6.u) .t eronomy22: 6). Ibn Ezra discusses several cryptic questions that arise following the biblical wording. In his long
IbIbnn E Ezrzar ad dIisbicsnucuEssszesrsea ssd esivesvecruearslas cle rscyrsypeptvitcei rcqa quluecsretysitpoiotninsc stq htuhaetas tat iraoirsniess eft ofholallotlowawriinsingeg tf hothlel eob wbibiiblnilcgiactlah wl ewoboridbrdilniicngag.l I.w nIn oh rhidsi silno lgon.ngIg n hciosmlomngentary on Exodus 23: 19 he writes: “A kid (gedi) is only the son of a goat. And in the Arabic
cocommmmenentatcraoyrmy o monn eE nExtoxaodrdyuuso s2n 32E:3 :x1 o91 9dh uhes ew 2w3ri:rtie1tse9:s h:“ eA“Aw k rkidiitd e( sg(:egd“eidA)i )ik si isod on(nlgyley dt hit)hei ess osoonnn loy of tfah aeg gosooatna.t .oA Afnanddg i onian tt h.theA eAn Adraribanbicit ch elAanrgabuiacge it means a young goat, and it is not used to designate other species”. In other words, the
lalnangguuagage eil tai tmn mgeuaeanagnse sa i aty myooueaunnngsg ga goyoaota,ut ,an nagndgd oi tai tit s,i san nnodot tiut usiessdend ot otto ud sdeesedisgtigonnadtaeets eoi gotnhthaetree rs opstpehceeicreises”ps.”e .Ic niIen os ”oth.theInre row twhooredrrdsw,s o,t hrtdhe se, thteertmer “mkid” (gedi) refers specifically to the young of the domestic goat (Capra hircus mambrica, from the
tetremrm “ k“kidid”“ ”k( gi(degd”eid)(i g)r eerdfeeif)resrre ssf psepersceicsfipifcieacclaillfiyly cta otlo lty htheto ey ytohoueunyngog ou ofn ftg htheo edf dothomemedseotsimtci cge gostoaitca t(g C(oCaapatrp(arC aha ihpricrruacush smi rmcaumasmbmrbiraciamc,a bf, rrfoircomam, ft rhtohem e thgoeagto aanttelope subfamily Caprinae and a member of the family Bovidae. The biblical goat (in Hebrew:
ggooata ta nantetleoalopnpete esl ouspubebfafsmaumbilfiyaly mC CailpayrpiCrnianapear eai nnaanded aa n am dmeamemmbebemre rob ofe frt htohef eft hafmaemfialiymly Bi lBoyvoBivdioadveai.de .Ta Teh.heT ebh biebibblilicbiacllai clg agoloagtao t(a i(ntin (Hi nHeHbebreerbwerwe:w : :eezz זע)) iiss clearly identified with the modern-day goat, and the Arabic name as well preserves the goat’s
eze zז עז)ע )is i sc lcelcaelraelraylry ild yideindenteitnfiitfeiifidede wd wiwtihtih tth hthet hem emomoddoerdenren-rdn-da-dyay agy googatao,t aa,t na,ndand td hthet heA eArAarbarbiacib cni cnamanmaem ea esa swa swewlell epl lprlerpsereseresvreversev ste hsthet ehg egooagtao’tsa’ st’ saanncciieenntt name hanz (زنْعَ ) or miza (ةزَ عْ مِ ). The halakhic (halakha means ‘Jewish law’) prohibition of
ananciceinent tn nanmaamem ehe ahhnaanzn zz( ز((زنْعَنْع)َ ))o oorr rm mmiizziaza a(( ة(زَةزعَْ معِْ))مِ..) .TT Thhehe ehh ahallaaaklkahkhihcici( ch( ha(halalakalkahkhaham am emaenaesna‘nsJ se‘ wJ‘eJiweswhisilhsah wl a’l)wawp’)r’ o)p hpriobrohithiiboibintiitooifonnc oo oof kf incgoomkeinatg meat with milk includes in practice the meat of all pure animals. If so, why is it worded as a
cocoookkiningg m mweaeitta htw wmitihitlh km miinlikcllk iu nidncelcusludindesep sir nian pc tpriacrcaetcittchiece etm hthee eam tmeoaefta ato lofl fap laull rlp epuaurner eiam nanaimlisma.laIsfl.s sI. ofI ,fs owso, hw, ywhihysy ii sti swi ti otw rwodoredrddedaesd a asa spa aro hpibroithioibnition against cooking a kid goat in its mother’s milk? Moreover, was cooking kid’s meat in milk
pprorohhibibitiitoionan ga agaiganiasnitnsctso tco ockooioknkigningag ak aikd kidgid og agotoaitan itn iint ist ismt sm omothothethre’res’rsm’ sm imliklik?lk?M ?M Moororeeoroevovever,re,wr w, awassac sco ocoookokinkingingkg ki dkid’isd’s’m sm emeaaettai ntin imn m milikliklak coam commomnon culinary phenomenon?
a ac ocommmmooncn cu ucluilnilnainarrayyrpy ph phehenneonomomemenneononon?n? ? Ibn Ezra’s view is that the principle “The scriptures speak of the present”, i.e., according to
IbIbnn E Ezrzar’as’I sbv nvieiweEwz ri sai s’ts hthvatai ettw hthei esp prthirniancticptihpleel e“p T“rThinhec eis pcslrceirpi“ptTutuhrerese sss cpsrpiepaetkauk ro eofs ft shtphee epa pkreroseesfnetnth”te,” ,ip .ier..ee,s .,ae canccto”cor,drid.ieni.ng,g at cotco o rdpirnegvatloent real-life practice, applies to the wording of the biblical prohibition “a young goat in its
pprervevalaelnent tpr erraeelva-lal-illfeiefn ept prrarecaatcli-tclieicf,ee ,a pparppaplciletiisec set o,to at phthpe elwi ewsoortdrodintihngeg o wof fot hrthde eibn bigbibloilcfiactlah lpe prboriohbhilbiicbitaiitolionpn r“o a“h aiy byoitouiuonnngg “g agooaytao tiu ninn ig tistg s oamtointhietsr’s milk”. Accordingly, the Torah speaks of the cooking of the two products rather than of their
mmooththere’rs’ sm mmiloikltk”h.”e A.r A’csccmocoridrlkdin”ing.glAylcy, ct, hothred eTi Tnogoralryha,h st hpspeeaeTkaoksr sao hof fts htphee eca ockoosokokifnitnghg oe ofc fto htohek eti wntwgoo op fprtorhodedutucwtcsto sr partarhothedreu rtc htthasnarn ao tofh fte htrhetiehri ar nuonftshpeeicrified mixing “as it is not the human custom to eat raw meat”. Current-day Muslim culinary
uunnspspeceicfiifeiduedn m smpixeiixcniifingeg “d a“msa sii txi tii nsi sgn no“aot stt hitthei esh hunuommtatnahn ec hucuustsmotomamn t cotuo es aetota mtr arwtaow em ametaertaa”wt.” .Cm Cueurarrter”ne.ntC-td-udaryarey Mn Mtu-dusalsiylmimM c uucuslillniimnaraycruy l inaarrty atatretsts to the ancient biblical tradition whereby cooking meat, particularly kid’s meat, with milk
aratr ta tattetsetsst sat ottto et hsthtes eat noancticheienenta tnb bicbiieblinlcitaclba lit brtalridacdiatilitotironan wd wihtiheorenerbewbyhy ce ocrooeobkkyinicngog mo mkeiaentag,t ,pm paeratarittci,ucpulaalrraltryilcy uk klidaird’sl’y sm kmeidaet’as,t ,wm wietihatht ,m wmiliiktlhk misil ka ipsraeferred culinary practice rooted in medical and nutritional conceptions whereby the mixture
isi sa ap prerfeefrerrerded c uculilninarayry p prarcatcitciec er oroootetded i nin m medediciacla la nandd n nuutrtirtiitoionnala lc oconncecpeptitoionns sw whhereerbebyy t hthe em mixitxuturer e of these two products is beneficial from various aspects. These are his contentions:
oof ft hthesees et wtwoo p prorodduuctcst si si sb benenefeifciicaila lf rforomm v varairoiouus sa sapspecetcst.s T. Thhesees ea raer eh hisi sc oconntetnentitoionns:s :
Religions2018,9,174 4of12
preferredculinarypracticerootedinmedicalandnutritionalconceptionswherebythemixtureofthese
RtwReleiogliigopinorsno s2d 021u081c,8 t9,s ,9 x,i s xF ObFOeRnR Pe EPfiEEcERiR aR lREfEVrVIoEImEWW v a riousaspects. Thesearehiscontentions: 4 4o fo 1f 21 2
RReelliiggiioonnss 22001188,, 99,, xx FFOORR PPEEEERR RREEVVIIEEWW 44 ooff 1122
333..11.1.. .II nnIn tt hhthee eMM Muuussllsiilmmim RR Reeggegiiooinnon,, ,CC Coooookkoeekdded DD Diissihhsheesse soo ffo fMM Meeaaetta tww wiittihhth MM Miillikkl kAA Arreer eCC Coonnonssiisddiederreeerdded PP Paarrattriitcciuuclulaalrrallryyly AA Aggrgreereeeaaebballbeel e
33..11.. IInn tthhee MMuusslliimm RReeggiioonn,, CCooookkeedd DDiisshheess ooff MMeeaatt wwiitthh MMiillkk AArree CCoonnssiiddeerreedd PPaarrttiiccuullaarrllyy AAggrreeeeaabbllee
IInnIn hh hiissi sss hhshooorrttr tcc oocommmmmmeennenttaatraryyry oo onnn EE Exxoxooddduuuss s22 323:3: 1:1 1999 II bbIbnnn EE Ezzzrraara ss aasayyyss::s “:“ “AAAnnnddd GG Goooddd cc ocoommmmmmaaannndddeedded tt hhthaaatt ttt hhthee ekk kiiddid nn nooott t
IInn hhiiss sshhoorrtt ccoommmmeennttaarryy oonn EExxoodduuss 2233:: 1199 IIbbnn EEzzrraa ssaayyss:: ““AAnndd GGoodd ccoommmmaannddeedd tthhaatt tthhee kkiidd nnoott
bbbee ecc oocooookkkeededd ii nnin ii ttisst smm moootthhtheerre’’rss’ smm miillikklk,, ,bb beececacaauuussese e[[ tt[ooto]] ]tt hhthiissi sdd daaayyy ii tti tii ssi stt hhthee eII ssIhhshmmmaaaeeleliilttieet ecc uucussttsootommm tt ooto cc oocooookkk tt hhthee ekk kiiddid ww wiittihhth
bbee ccooookkeedd iinn iittss mmootthheerr’’ss mmiillkk,, bbeeccaauussee [[ttoo]] tthhiiss ddaayy iitt iiss tthhee IIsshhmmaaeelliittee ccuussttoomm ttoo ccooookk tthhee kkiidd wwiitthh
tthhthee emm miillikklk,, ,aa annnddd tt hhtheeyeyy ss aasayyy tt hhthaaatt tii tti tii ssi saa nann aa gagrgreereeeaaebablbleel edd diissihhsh””.”. .NN Naaammmeelelyyly,, M,M Muuussllsiilmmim cc uuculliilnninaararyyry aa rarttr ttt eetaaecachhcheesse stt hhthaaatt tkk kiiddid’’ss’ s
tthhee mmiillkk,, aanndd tthheeyy ssaayy tthhaatt iitt iiss aann aaggrreeeeaabbllee ddiisshh””.. NNaammeellyy,, MMuusslliimm ccuulliinnaarryy aarrtt tteeaacchheess tthhaatt kkiidd’’ss
mmmeeaaetat taa nandndd mm miillkiklk pp rproordoduducuctstcsta sar eareri eni ngingregrderdeiedineitnesntswt swh wohshoeosmes emi xmtixuixtrueturgere egn geeneranetreearsateatseq sa ua qi tqueuittiaets ett yatasatsynty da ancnhddo ci chcehoopicireco edp purorcodt,duiu.cetc.,,t ,
mmeeaatt aanndd mmiillkk pprroodduuccttss aarree iinnggrreeddiieennttss wwhhoossee mmiixxttuurree ggeenneerraatteess aa qquuiittee ttaassttyy aanndd cchhooiiccee pprroodduucctt,,
ia.ieh..e,i. s,a ta oh rhiisictsaotlorcircoiacnal tlci nocounntititnyinuiusitieytvy ii sdi see venvitdiwdeneitnth tw rweitgihtah rr edrgetgaoardrcdo to otko ci oncoogokakinnindgg af oanonddd f opfooreodpd pa prrearpetipaoarnarataitsoionwn ae asll s.w welell.l .
ii..ee..,, aa hhiissttoorriiccaall ccoonnttiinnuuiittyy iiss eevviiddeenntt wwiitthh rreeggaarrdd ttoo ccooookkiinngg aanndd ffoooodd pprreeppaarraattiioonn aass wweellll..
QQQuuuiittieet e eexexxtteetnennssiisvvivee e AAArraarabbbiicci c lliilttieetreraarattuuturreer e wwwaaass s wwwrriirttittteetnenn iinnin tthhthee e mmmiiddiddddlleel e aaagggeeses s ooonnn vvvaaarriirooiouuuss s aaassppspeececttcsst s oooff f
QQuuiittee eexxtteennssiivvee AArraabbiicc lliitteerraattuurree wwaass wwrriitttteenn iinn tthhee mmiiddddllee aaggeess oonn vvaarriioouuss aassppeeccttss ooff
ccooconnntteetmmempppooorraarraryyry ff oofooooddd aa annnddd nn nuuuttrrtiirttiiitooionnn.. F.F Fooorr ree xexxaaammmppplleel,e, t,t hhtheerereer eaa arreer err eerceciicppipee ebb booooookkkss saa annnddd ii nninssttsrrtuuruccttciitooionnnss sff ooforr rpp prreerpeppaaarriirnninggg
ccoonntteemmppoorraarryy ffoooodd aanndd nnuuttrriittiioonn.. FFoorr eexxaammppllee,, tthheerree aarree rreecciippee bbooookkss aanndd iinnssttrruuccttiioonnss ffoorr pprreeppaarriinngg
ffffoooofoooooddodd;d;; ; A AAA; dAdddaadaabbbba ( b(((بب ب(بدددأأ)أد))) أl l)lili ititltteieeetrrreraaaarttattuuuutrurrreeeer,,, ,e i iii,.. e..eiee...,.e., ,, (. ((,(ll lal(aaalyyayy))y)) l l)lili ititltteieeetrrreraaaarttattuuuutrurrreeeer i eiiinn nni na aaan nann na aaar rarrrrrrraaaaryyayy yo ooo ffoff s sfssu uusububbbjjbejjeeecjccectttctsssst a saaai iaimimmmimeeeeddded d a aaat tat t p ptpp rprrreeeerssseseeesennnenttnttiiinitnnniggngg gw www wiiididddiedeee g eggg eegeennneneeneerrreraaaarllall l
iinninffooforrmmrmaaattiitooionnn rr eerqeqquuuiirrieerdedd bb byyy ii nnintteetlelllleelcecttcuutuaaallssl;s; ;h hhiissitstootorriricciacaall ld ddeesescscrcririppipttitiooionnnss so ooff fh hhooowww v vvaaarririooiouuuss st tyytypppeeses so ooff fff oofooooddd ww weerereer e
iinnffoorrmmaattiioonn rreeqquuiirreedd bbyy iinntteelllleeccttuuaallss;; hhiissttoorriiccaall ddeessccrriippttiioonnss ooff hhooww vvaarriioouuss ttyyppeess ooff ffoooodd wweerree
ccooconnnssuusummmeededd bb byyy dd diififfffeferererenenntt ts sosooccicaiiaal llc clcallaassssessese;ss ;;t httheh eee leeallababoboroarrataett ere orroyoyayal alc luccuisuiisinisnein eoe of oft hfthet ehr eurulrilnuinglig nc glcalascssla;s s;a san;ndad nm mdoormer eo( or(oenn (t ohtnhe e
ccoonnssuummeedd bbyy ddiiffffeerreenntt ssoocciiaall ccllaasssseess;; tthhee eellaabboorraattee rrooyyaall ccuuiissiinnee ooff tthhee rruulliinngg ccllaassss;; aanndd mmoorree ((oonn tthhee
MthMueusMlsilniunss’s l’ci unculsi’lnincaurayrliy nc ucaulrtyluturceru esl estuee er( eA(Arsberbeerer(ryAry 1r b9139e93rr,9 yp, pp1p.9 2.3 129–1,4–p74,7p 1,. 81982–912––124417;4, R; 1Ro8od9di–ni2ns1os4on;n 1R 91o49d94,9i np, pspop. n9. 591–591–451985,;8 A;p Apshs.hto9tor5 r1– 911695868,8; ,
MMuusslliinnss’’ ccuulliinnaarryy ccuullttuurree sseeee ((AArrbbeerrrryy 11993399,, pppp.. 2211––4477,, 118899––221144;; RRooddiinnssoonn 11994499,, pppp.. 9955––115588;; AAsshhttoorr 11996688,,
Apppsph. .1t o10r011717–9–565383;, ;Wp Wpa.aini1ne0se1 s17 19–9858939;; ;W WWaaaiinnineeses s1 11999989292, ;,p p1p9p. 9.7 272,255–p–3p38.8; ;W7 W2a5ai–ni3ne8se; s2 22000000222, ,,v vvoool.ll .I. II,II ,pI ,pppp. p.2 21.1626–1–26233–; ;M2 M3a;arMirnina 1r 19in999414, 9, 9 4,
pppp.. 11001177––5533;; WWaaiinneess 11998899;; WWaaiinneess 11999922,, pppp.. 772255––3388;; WWaaiinneess 22000022,, vvooll.. IIII,, pppp.. 221166––2233;; MMaarriinn 11999944,,
pppppp.. 2.2 020505–5–1–1515;5; L;L Leevvevaanannooonnnii 2i2 020000505,5, p,p pppp.. 2.2 020101–1–2–2222)2))))..) .
pppp.. 220055––1155;; LLeevvaannoonnii 22000055,, pppp.. 220011––2222))))..
DDDiiddid MM Muuussllsiilmmim gg gooouuurrmmrmeetet tdd diinnineererssr sii nnindddeeeeededd tt hhthiinninkkk tt hhthaaatt tmm meeaeaatt taa annnddd mm miillikklk ii ssi srr eercceoocommmmmmeenenndddeededd cc oocommmbbbiinninaaattiitooionnn?? ?
DDiidd MMuusslliimm ggoouurrmmeett ddiinneerrss iinnddeeeedd tthhiinnkk tthhaatt mmeeaatt aanndd mmiillkk iiss rreeccoommmmeennddeedd ccoommbbiinnaattiioonn??
CCCaaannn aa annn aa apppppprreercceiicaaiattiitooionnn ff ooforr rtt hhthee ecc oocommmbbbiinninaaattiitooionnn oo off fff aafarrmmrm rr aaraiissieesdedd mm meeaeaatt tww wiittihhth mm miillikklk aa annnddd ii ttisst spp prrooroddduuuccttcsst sbb bee eff oofouuunnnddd ii nnin
CCaann aann aapppprreecciiaattiioonn ffoorr tthhee ccoommbbiinnaattiioonn ooff ffaarrmm rraaiisseedd mmeeaatt wwiitthh mmiillkk aanndd iittss pprroodduuccttss bbee ffoouunndd iinn
tthhthee ecc uuculliilnninaaarryyry ll iilttieetreraarattuuturreer eoo off ftt hhthooossees edd daaayyyss??s ?II ttI taa appppppeeaeaarrssr sss ooso.. .TT Thhhee epp piiccitctuuturreer edd drraarawwwnnn bb byyy II bbIbnnn EE Ezzzrraara cc eecrrettraataiinninllyyly rr eerflfelfeelccettcsst s
tthhee ccuulliinnaarryy lliitteerraattuurree ooff tthhoossee ddaayyss?? IItt aappppeeaarrss ssoo.. TThhee ppiiccttuurree ddrraawwnn bbyy IIbbnn EEzzrraa cceerrttaaiinnllyy rreefflleeccttss
tthhthee err eeraaealliilttiyyty oo off fhh hiissi stt iitmmimee eaa nannddd rr eercceeeciievviveesse shh hiissittsootorriircciaaclal lss uusuppppppooorrttr tii nnin mm meeddediieeivvevaalal lMM Muuussllsiilmmim cc oocooookkkbbbooooookkkss stt hhthaaatt tpp prraaraiissiees ett hhthee e
tthhee rreeaalliittyy ooff hhiiss ttiimmee aanndd rreecceeiivveess hhiissttoorriiccaall ssuuppppoorrtt iinn mmeeddiieevvaall MMuusslliimm ccooookkbbooookkss tthhaatt pprraaiissee tthhee
ccoocooookkkiinninggg oo off fmm meeaeaatt tww wiittihhth mm miillikklk,, ,aa allttlhhthooouuuggghhh tt ooto dd daaatteet eII Ihh haaavvveee ff oofouuunnnddd nn nooo ss ppspeececiicaaiall lrr eerfefeefrereernenncceec ett ooto tt hhthee ecc oocooookkkiinninggg oo off fkk kiiddid’’ss’ s
ccooookkiinngg ooff mmeeaatt wwiitthh mmiillkk,, aalltthhoouugghh ttoo ddaattee II hhaavvee ffoouunndd nnoo ssppeecciiaall rreeffeerreennccee ttoo tthhee ccooookkiinngg ooff kkiidd’’ss
mmmeeaeaatt tww wiittihhth mm miillikklk.. .BB Beefefooforreer epp prreerseseesnennttiitnninggg ss eesvevveereraarall lss oosouuurrccreceses stt hhthaaatt taa addddddrreersessss sdd diissihhsheeses scc oocommmbbbiinniniinninggg mm meeaeaatt taa annnddd mm miillikklk ii nnin
mmeeaatt wwiitthh mmiillkk.. BBeeffoorree pprreesseennttiinngg sseevveerraall ssoouurrcceess tthhaatt aaddddrreessss ddiisshheess ccoommbbiinniinngg mmeeaatt aanndd mmiillkk iinn
MMMuuussllsiilmmim cc uucuiissiiisnninee,e, I,I Imm muuusstst tee xexxpppaanannddd oo onnn tt hhthee epp pllaalcacece eoo off fmm meeaeatat taa nannddd mm miililklkk p pprrorooddduuucctctsts si niinn t htthhee ec cucuulillniinnaarayrryy a aratrr tto oof fft htthhisii ssc uccuuisiiissniinne.ee ..
MMuusslliimm ccuuiissiinnee,, II mmuusstt eexxppaanndd oonn tthhee ppllaaccee ooff mmeeaatt aanndd mmiillkk pprroodduuccttss iinn tthhee ccuulliinnaarryy aarrtt ooff tthhiiss ccuuiissiinnee..
TTThhhee eaa asssssuusummmpppttiitooionnn ii ssi stt hhthaaatt tcc oocommmbbbiinniniinninggg m mmeeaeaatt ta aannnddd m mmiillikklk i issi srr oorooootteetdedd ii nnin tt hhthee eAA Arraarabbb ww waaayyy oo off fll iilffieef eaa annnddd ii nnin
TThhee aassssuummppttiioonn iiss tthhaatt ccoommbbiinniinngg mmeeaatt aanndd mmiillkk iiss rrooootteedd iinn tthhee AArraabb wwaayy ooff lliiffee aanndd iinn
aaagggrriircciuucullttluuturraarall laa annnddd ee cecocoonnnooommmiicci cp pprraraacctctiticiceceses so ooff fm mmaaannnyyy y yyeeaeaarrsrs.s ..I nIInn t htthhe eeA AArarrabab-bM--MMuusulssilmliimm r errgeegigoiionon,n ,l, ilvliivevseetsosttocokcck kp plpalalyayeydeed da a
aaggrriiccuullttuurraall aanndd eeccoonnoommiicc pprraaccttiicceess ooff mmaannyy yyeeaarrss.. IInn tthhee AArraabb--MMuusslliimm rreeggiioonn,, lliivveessttoocckk ppllaayyeedd aa
mammaajoajojro rer ceeocconononomommici iccr orroloell,ee ,a, asa sss hssheheeepeepp a anannddd c accaattttlttell eep pprorroovvvidiiddeededd a aa v vvaaarrireiieteyttyy o ooff fp pprrorooddduuucctctsts ss susuucchchh a aass smm meeaeaatt,,t ,mm miillikklk aa annnddd ii ttisst s
mmaajjoorr eeccoonnoommiicc rroollee,, aass sshheeeepp aanndd ccaattttllee pprroovviiddeedd aa vvaarriieettyy ooff pprroodduuccttss ssuucchh aass mmeeaatt,, mmiillkk aanndd iittss
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oAoAAoAorrrroAririrriieareaeeaanrinbnnbebabttinttiabiicaacacctl:illi:al: :cii sil sllss:lil ii ia pisalpapap i l o laplaoloaoaa rtlrtortarty y ya yrtauaaulyu ulliarliriuariralaaaa aira a aa a ةa aةrة ﱠrي rﱠaيriﱠيِلةiِلi,eِلri,eﱠية,eesةiةِلssَي,es َيَيل ْة lلْsَألْlَأla َيَأl)a a )لْat.l)َأ)t.tai .t .iMi )cM itcMcM.caia acaMuiuiuailuildlkdlukdkidkalad a waktw twtawata ata,waa, ,aaa , issi,sinasin n uniu s uu n A sAsAusAs eeAerersrddardadearab bd atbt tbtiooibo icocitc :i copp : :pcp : يrr:pيrيr (oooسoيrسسdddodااسواuuوdوuuعاعccعوucc)ee)ع)ee c )wyy ewwywy ooowyoaaaagggosgssashh hg h usuuuuuuh ututtrrtiurriiitltttlltli rii iia zaatzlzazin enneeanzeddddddnded d d ts ststtsom oo mommts o pmpeppeee rnprnrnrneooo or n( d((dod(dةة ةuَ(نduuَنuَنمةْمْمcْucسَنcَcسَسeمَْeeec))س )َ) , ef,,f ,ff) aw aawwa,wft ttat wh h hfhtfffri rihriricofccoocorhimhhhmcomm hi mi iis s ts stt tih hm hshmmtme eheeme e ee esslssllole totoottselefeefotffdtdtddett f td ttb ttab bbaaa tuiubiuuaiillllt ut itt (t(tl((ttiet ieiieen(tnrnnrirer n r
uususuaalllyly m meletletded a abboovve eb booiliilningg w waatetre ra anndd p puurirfiifeided b byy d disitsitlillalatitoionn. S. Smmenen i si st hthe ep pooppuulalar ro oili lo of ft hthe eM Mididddlel e
uuusssuuuaaallllllyyy mmmeeelllttteeeddd aaabbbooovvveee bbboooiiillliiinnnggg wwwaaattteeerrr aaannnddd pppuuurrriiifffiiieeeddd bbbyyy dddiiissstttiiillllllaaatttiiiooonnn... SSSmmmeeennn iiisss ttthhheee pppooopppuuulllaaarrr oooiiilll ooofff ttthhheee MMMiiiddddddllleee
EEaasts ta anndd i ti ti si su usesded t oto f rfyry a anndd c ocoookk m meaeat ta anndd v vegegeteatabblelse.s .M Meaeat ta anndd m miliklk c ocommbbininaatitoionns si nin A Ararabb c ucuisiisnine e
EEEaaasssttt aaannnddd iiittt iiisss uuussseeeddd tttooo fffrrryyy aaannnddd cccooooookkk mmmeeeaaattt aaannnddd vvveeegggeeetttaaabbbllleeesss... MMMeeeaaattt aaannnddd mmmiililklkk cccooommmbbbiiinnnaaatttiiiooonnnsss iiinnn AAArrraaabbb cccuuuiiisssiiinnneee
aarer es tsrtoronngglyly a asssosocicaiatetded w witihth s msmenen, a, as si ti th haas sa a m maajojor rr orolel ei nin a addddiningg f lfalavvoor rt oto m meaeat td disihshese s( W(Waaininese s1 1999911, ,
aaarrreee ssstttrrrooonnnggglllyyy aaassssssoooccciiiaaattteeeddd wwwiiittthhh sssmmmeeennn,,, aaasss iititt hhhaaasss aaa mmmaaajjojoorrr rroroollelee iininn aaaddddddiininnggg fflfllaaavvvooorr r ttotoo mmmeeeaaatt t dddiissihshheeess s ((WW(Waaaiininneeesss 111999999111,, ,
vvool.l V. VI,I p, ppp. 8. 80077––99).) E. Eaatitningg m meaeat tw waas sa ann i ninddiciacatitoionn o of fo onne’es’ sh higighh s osocicaial lc lcalasss,s a, anndd o onnlyly t hthe ew weaealtlhthyy a anndd
vvvooolll... VVVIII,, , pppppp.. . 888000777–––999))).. . EEEaaattitininnggg mmmeeeaaatt t wwwaaasss aaannn iininndddiiciccaaattitioioonnn oooff f ooonnneee’’s’ss hhhiigigghhh sssoooccciiaiaall l cccllalaassssss,, , aaannnddd ooonnnllylyy ttthhheee wwweeeaaalllttthhhyyy aaannnddd
aaffflfuluenent te nenjojoyyeded t hthisi sp prorodduuctc.t .M Meaeat td disihshese sw wereer es esrevrveded a at tf efsetsitvive em meaealsl so or rt oto g guuesetsst s( L(Levevaannoonni i2 2000055, ,
aaaffffffllluuueeennnttt eeennnjjojooyyyeeeddd ttthhhiiisss ppprrroooddduuucccttt.. . MMMeeeaaatt t dddiisisshhheeesss wwweeerrreee ssseeerrrvvveeeddd aaatt t fffeeesssttitivivveee mmmeeeaaallslss ooorrr ttotoo ggguuueeesssttstss (((LLLeeevvvaaannnooonnnii i 222000000555,, ,
pppp. .2 21133––1177).) .
pppppp... 222111333–––111777))).. .
TThhe ep prorohhibibitiitoionn a aggaaininsts tc ocoookkiningg m meaeat tw witihth m miliklk i si sm menentitoionneded i nin t hthe eT Toorarahh i nin t hthe es escetcitoionn o onn t hthe e
TTThhheee ppprrrooohhhiiibbbiiitttiiiooonnn aaagggaaaiiinnnsssttt cccooooookkkiininnggg mmmeeeaaattt wwwiititthhh mmmiililklkk iisiss mmmeeennnttitioioonnneeeddd iininn tththheee TTTooorrraaahhh iiinnn ttthhheee ssseeeccctttiiiooonnn ooonnn ttthhheee
fefsetsitvivaalsl s( E(Exxoodduus s2 233: 1: 144––1199; I; bIbidid.,. 3, 344: 2: 222––2266),) a, anndd s osomme eh haavve ec lcalaimimeded t hthaat ti ti ti si sm menentitoionneded h hereer eb beceacauuses e
fffeeessstttiiivvvaaalllsss (((EEExxxoooddduuusss 222333::: 111444–––111999;;; IIIbbbiiiddd...,,, 333444:: : 222222–––222666))),, , aaannnddd sssooommmeee hhhaaavvveee cccllalaaiimimmeeeddd ttthhhaaattt iititt iisiss mmmeeennnttitioioonnneeeddd hhheeerrreee bbbeeecccaaauuussseee
mmeaeat ti si so oftfetnen e aeatetnen i nin f efsetsitvivaalsl sa as sa a f efsetsitvive ed disihsh, ,l elaeaddiningg t oto a a g greraeatetre rr irsiksk o of ft hthe em mixixtuturer eo of fm meaeat ta anndd
mmmeeeaaattt iiisss ooofffttteeennn eeeaaattteeennn i ininn f fefeesststitviivvaaalsllssa asassa aaf e ffseetssitvtiievvede iddsihiss,hhl,e, alleedaaidndiginntggo tatoog aar e ggarrteeearattreeirsr k rriiosskfk t ohofef ttmhheiex mtmuiirxxettuourfreem ooeffa mtmaeenaadtt amannidldk
mmiliklk ( C(Chhavavele l2 2000066, ,p p. .2 28822).) .I bIbnn E Ezzrara, ,i nin h hisi sl olonngg c ocommmmenentataryry o onn E Exxoodduus s2 233: :1 199, ,s tsatatetse st hthaat tt hthe e
mm(Ciilhlkka v((CeClhh2aa0vv0ee6ll ,22p00.002668,, 2 p)p... I 2b28n822E)).z. rIIabb,nni n EEhzzirrsaal,,o ininng hchoiissm lmloonnegng t accrooymmommneeEnnxttoaadrryuy soo2nn3 :EE1xx9oo,dsdtuuastse 2s233th:: a11t99t,,h sesttapatrteeossh ittbhhiataitto ntthhoeef
pprorohhibibitiitoionn o of fc ocoookkiningg m meaeat tw witihth m miliklk i si sm menentitoionneded i nin t hthe eT Toorarahh i nin c lcoloses ep proroxximimitiyty t oto t hthe ef efsetsitvivaal lo of f
ppcrorooohhkiiibbniigttiioomnne oaoftf cwcooiootkhkiimnnggi l mkmieesaamtt wweniittthhio mmneiildlkk i iinss mtmheeennTttoiioornanheeddi n iinnc lttohhseee TTpoorroraaxhhim iinnit cycllotoosseet h pperroofexxsiimtmiviitatyyl totoof tSthhheea vffeeussottitivv,aaalsl ooifnf
SShhaavvuuoot,t a, as si nin t hthisi ss esaeasosonn t hthereer ea arer ey yoouunngg g gooaatst sa anndd t hthereer ei si sa a c hchaanncec et hthaat tt htheieri rm meaeat tw woouuldld b be ec ocoookkeded
SSthhhaiasvvsuueooatts,, o aanss iitnnh tethhreiissa ssreeeaasysooonnu ntthhgeegrreeo aaartrsee ayynooduunnthgg e ggroeoaaitstss a aancnhdda ttnhhceeerreet h iissa ata t cchhheaainrnccmee e tthahatatwt tthoheueiilrrd mmbeeeaactt o wwookoueudllddi bnbeem ccoiolookkk:ee“ddIt
inin m miliklk: :“ “ItI tw waas so onnlyly m menentitoionneded w witihth t hthe ef ifrisrts tf rfuruiti,t ,a as st hthenen t hthe ek kidids sa abboouunndd a anndd g groroww.”.”
iiwnn ammsiiollkkn::l y““IImtt wwenaatssi ooonnnellydy mwmeietnnhttitioohnneeefiddr wswtiifttrhhu tithth,eea fsfiirtrshstte fnfrruuthiitte,, akasisd tthsheaenbn o tthuhene dkkiiaddnss d aabgboroouuwnnd.d” aanndd ggrrooww..””
CChhooiciec ed disihshese so of fm meaeat ta anndd m miliklk a arer em menentitoionneded i nin m mededieivevaal lM Muuslsilmim c uculilninaaryry l iltietrearatuturer.e .I Is hshaalll l
CCChhhoooiiiccceee dddiiissshhheeesss ooofff mmmeeeaaattt aaannnddd mmmiiilllkkk aaarrreee mmmeeennntttiiiooonnneeeddd iiinnn mmmeeedddiiieeevvvaaalll MMMuuusssllliiimmm cccuuullliiinnnaaarrryyy llliiittteeerrraaatttuuurrreee... III ssshhhaaallllll
nnooww b brirningg s esveverearla le xexamampplelse.s .T Thhe eM Muuslsilmim a uauththoor rM Muuḥḥamammmadad b binin a la-lḤ-Ḥasaasann a la-lB-Baagghhddaaddi i( d(d. .1 2132939/4/040 A ADD) )
nnnooowww bbbrrriininnggg ssseeevvveereraralal leexexaxamammpplpleelsse.. s TT.hhTeeh MeMMuussulliismmli m aauuatthuhotohrr o MMruMuḥḥuaamhm.ammmaamdd a bbdiinnb aainll--ḤḤaala-ssHa.anan s aaalln--BBaaalgg-hBhdadgaadhdidi (a(ddd.. i 11(22d33.991//442003 9AA/DD4)0)
wwwwrrrooorttoteeet ehhh iihisss i bsbb ooboooookkok k “““ KK“KiKiitttaiaatbbab b aaa llal---TlTT-aTaabbabiibihhhihhhh””h” ” (((= ==(TT=ThThheehe eBBB oBooooookkok k ooo ffof DfDD Diiissshihhseehessse]]]s ]((( خخخ(ييخيبببططيطبلطلالا ا لبباب بااتاتتككاك)ت))ك )ooo nnon n MMM Muuususslllisiimmlmim cccu uuciuiisssiiiinsnnieene eiiinn ni n 111 221222226626 6 (((o oo(nnon n
ththisi sb booookk s esee e( N(Naasrsaralllalahh 2 2001100, ,p ppp. 2. 222––2233))).) .T Thhe eb booookk w waas sw wrirtittetnen a abboouut t6 600 y yeaearsr sa aftfetre rt hthe ed deaeathth o of fI bIbnn
tthhiiss bbooookk sseeee ((NNaassrraallllaahh 22001100,, pppp.. 2222––2233)))).. TThhee bbooookk wwaass wwrriitttteenn aabboouutt 6600 yyeeaarrss aafftteerr tthhee ddeeaatthh ooff IIbbnn
EEzzrara a anndd r erfelfelcetcst st hthe ec uculilninaaryry r eraealiltiyty o of fw whhicihch I bIbnn E Ezzrara s pspeaeakks si nin h hisi sb bibiblilciacal lc ocommmmenentataryry. .A Al-l-
EEzzrraa aanndd rreefflleeccttss tthhee ccuulliinnaarryy rreeaalliittyy ooff wwhhiicchh IIbbnn EEzzrraa ssppeeaakkss iinn hhiiss bbiibblliiccaall ccoommmmeennttaarryy.. AAll--
BBaagghhddaaddi id devevootetded a a c hchaapptetre rt oto e aeachch o of ft hthe ep pooppuulalar rg grorouupps so of fd disihshese si nin M Muuslsilmim c ucuisiisnine,e ,f ofor re xexaammpplel e
BBaagghhddaaddii ddeevvootteedd aa cchhaapptteerr ttoo eeaacchh ooff tthhee ppooppuullaarr ggrroouuppss ooff ddiisshheess iinn MMuusslliimm ccuuiissiinnee,, ffoorr eexxaammppllee
mmeaeat td disihshese sa anndd s osouur rd disihshese.s .I nIn e aeachch c hchaapptetre rh he el ilsitsst st hthe en neceecsessasaryry i ninggrerdedieinentst sf ofor rp prerpepaarirningg t hthe e
mmeeaatt ddiisshheess aanndd ssoouurr ddiisshheess.. IInn eeaacchh cchhaapptteerr hhee lliissttss tthhee nneecceessssaarryy iinnggrreeddiieennttss ffoorr pprreeppaarriinngg tthhee
ddisihshese sa anndd h hooww t htheyey a arer em maadde.e .
ddiisshheess aanndd hhooww tthheeyy aarree mmaaddee..
Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 12
3.1. In the Muslim Region, Cooked Dishes of Meat with Milk Are Considered Particularly Agreeable
In his short commentary on Exodus 23: 19 Ibn Ezra says: “And God commanded that the kid not
be cooked in its mother’s milk, because [to] this day it is the Ishmaelite custom to cook the kid with
the milk, and they say that it is an agreeable dish”. Namely, Muslim culinary art teaches that kid’s
meat and milk products are ingredients whose mixture generates a quite tasty and choice product,
i.e., a historical continuity is evident with regard to cooking and food preparation as well.
Quite extensive Arabic literature was written in the middle ages on various aspects of
contemporary food and nutrition. For example, there are recipe books and instructions for preparing
food; Adab (بدأ) literature, i.e., (lay) literature in an array of subjects aimed at presenting wide general
information required by intellectuals; historical descriptions of how various types of food were
consumed by different social classes; the elaborate royal cuisine of the ruling class; and more (on the
Muslins’ culinary culture see (Arberry 1939, pp. 21–47, 189–214; Rodinson 1949, pp. 95–158; Ashtor 1968,
pp. 1017–53; Waines 1989; Waines 1992, pp. 725–38; Waines 2002, vol. II, pp. 216–23; Marin 1994,
pp. 205–15; Levanoni 2005, pp. 201–22)).
Did Muslim gourmet diners indeed think that meat and milk is recommended combination?
Can an appreciation for the combination of farm raised meat with milk and its products be found in
the culinary literature of those days? It appears so. The picture drawn by Ibn Ezra certainly reflects
the reality of his time and receives historical support in medieval Muslim cookbooks that praise the
cooking of meat with milk, although to date I have found no special reference to the cooking of kid’s
meat with milk. Before presenting several sources that address dishes combining meat and milk in
Muslim cuisine, I must expand on the place of meat and milk products in the culinary art of this cuisine.
The assumption is that combining meat and milk is rooted in the Arab way of life and in
agricultural and economic practices of many years. In the Arab-Muslim region, livestock played a
major economic role, as sheep and cattle provided a variety of products such as meat, milk and its
products, skins, and wool. The animal farm had considerable significance, particularly in semi-arid
areas, among migrant shepherd societies which did not cultivate fruit groves or fields.
Milk products were eaten on their own but were also an important ingredient in basic cooking
operations of Muslim cuisine, which utilized many animal- and plant-based cooking oils. From the
plant world, olive oil and sesame oil were used. The local common breed of sheep, the Awassi (Ovis
orientalis platyura aries laticaudata, in Arabic: يساوع) was utilized to produce fat from the soft tail (in
Arabic: lia or alia ةﱠيِل,ةَيلَْأ ). Milk was used to produce yoghurt and smen (ةَنمْ سَ ), which is melted butter
usually melted above boiling water and purified by distillation. Smen is the popular oil of the Middle
East and it is used to fry and cook meat and vegetables. Meat and milk combinations in Arab cuisine
are strongly associated with smen, as it has a major role in adding flavor to meat dishes (Waines 1991,
vol. VI, pp. 807–9). Eating meat was an indication of one’s high social class, and only the wealthy and
affluent enjoyed this product. Meat dishes were served at festive meals or to guests (Levanoni 2005,
pp. 213–17).
The prohibition against cooking meat with milk is mentioned in the Torah in the section on the
festivals (Exodus 23: 14–19; Ibid., 34: 22–26), and some have claimed that it is mentioned here because
meat is often eaten in festivals as a festive dish, leading to a greater risk of the mixture of meat and
milk (Chavel 2006, p. 282). Ibn Ezra, in his long commentary on Exodus 23: 19, states that the
prohibition of cooking meat with milk is mentioned in the Torah in close proximity to the festival of
Shavuot, as in this season there are young goats and there is a chance that their meat would be cooked
in milk: “It was only mentioned with the first fruit, as then the kids abound and grow.”
Religions2018,9,174 5of12
Choice dishes of meat and milk are mentioned in medieval Muslim culinary literature. I shall
now bring several examples. The Muslim author Muḥammad bin al-Ḥasan al-Baghdadi (d. 1239/40 AD)
AD)wwrroottee hhiiss bbooookk ““KKiittaabb aall--TTaabbiihhhh”” ((==TThhee BBooookk ooff DDiisshheess]] ((خيبطلا باتك)) oonn MMuusslliimm ccuuiissiinnee iinn 11222266 (on
(ontthhisisb booookks seeee( (NNaawsraall2la0h10 2,0p1p0., 2p2p–. 2232)–).2T3)h)e. Tbhoeo kbowoaks wwarsit wternitatbeno uatb6o0uyt e6a0r yseaafrtes ratfhteerd theaet dheoafthIb onf Ibn
EzraEaznrda raenfldec trsetfhleectcsu ltihnea rcyurleinalaitryy orfewalhitiyc hoIfb nwEhzicrha sIpbena kEszirna hsipsebaibklsi cianl choims mbiebnlitcaaryl .cAolm-Bmagehndtaardyi. Al-
devoBteadghadcahdaip dteervtooteeda cah cohfatphteerp toop uealacrhg orfo tuhpes poofpduislahre sgirnouMpus solifm dicsuhiessin ien, Mfourselximam Rcpuelliiegsiimonnees ,a2 0fto1d8r,i se9h,x xea sFmOpRl PeE ER REVIEW 5 of 12
ReRliegliiogniosn 2sa0R 21ne08ld1i,g 89ims,,o 9onx,e su F xa2Or 0FtR 1dOd8 iPR,si E9 shP,Eh EexReE sF s.RRO EI aRRnVnE PIedVEEa IWEEcsRWho uR c Erh VadIpEisWthe re sh. eInli setsacthh ecnheacpetsesra hrye ilnisgtrse dthieen ntsecfoesrsparreyp ianrginregdtiheentdsi s5fho o5erf so1pf2a 1r n2e dp5ah rooifn w1g2 the
theydairsehmesa adned. how they are made. In the chapter “Milk dishes” he records half a dozen stews of meat and vegetables boiled at
InI nth teh ec hIIcnanhp tathtpheeterec r“hc hMa“apMiptlektirle kdr“ iMd“sMhiislehkisle”kds i”hds heihs eehrs e”ercseho”cer odhrrseed c shro earhcdlafos lrafhd aads l ofdhzaoaelzdnfe o ansz tedesntwoeszwste ensow fo ssmfto emfweamesta eoata fnta dman ndved aevtgve eeagtgneaedtbta albveblsele egsbse lobtbeiaonolbeiigldlletee hddsa tibaan tot “lielPenedgr tsahita n milk”, which appears to be yoghurt. One of the conspicuous dishes in this group
lelnegntght hin ilin en“n P““gPePtrehesr risiasniinaa “n nmP mmeilrikisll”kika,”” nw,, wmwhihihclihkicc” hha, pawapppheppiaecerahasrr astsop tt opob eebba eeyr osyy gotoohgg uhhbrueut r.ry ttO.o. gOnOhenn ueoer foto .tf fhO ttehhn eceeo cconoofsn nptshsippceuii cccououuonosusu pdss iidcdsuhiissoehhsue esissn di intnihs thtihishes iisg sst rhiggonerru otomphuua ippsd igirsrao t(huارepي دام), which consists of meat, onions, leeks, and spices. The ingredients are cooked in
is itsh teh me mamidsaia drtdahiir era(a اmر((ايaردdايمدir)ام,a )) w,,( wwاhرiيhhcدhiiامcc )hhc,o cwcnooshnniisssctiihssst tocsso foo nmffs mmeisateetsa,a otot,,f no ominnoieniooasnnt, ,ss l,oe, lenleekieeoskkn, ssas,, ,n aaldnen edsdkp sssip,cp eiaicscne.ed sTs. . shTpTehih cieene igsin.nr gTegrdhreeieded inieinetnsgn tratses radear irceeeo ncaocto sokpo oeaokdrktee e dai dnct oi nlioen knaegdtph oi ntu ntil the liquids evaporate and then mixed with sour yoghurt, mint, and lemon juice
a ap opto at ta laate t lnpelgeonnttgh gat htuth nlueutnninltg ittltih hlteh tu hleine qltiuliqiliq udtuhisdie des l vsieqaevupvaioapdrposaor teaervta eaat nepadona rndtahd tteehtn hea nemn ndmix mtiehxdieex ndew dmwitwhiixt hiseto hdsu oswruo yirut ohyrg oyshgoouhugrurht ,ruy tmor, tmgi,nhmitun, irtan,t n,ta ,dmna dlinen dlmte, mloaaennnmod dnjou clnjieuocmoejiuc keoiec nde jaaungicadei n until thick (Miller 2007, p. 150). Other recipes of meat cooked in milk are customary
anadn dco cookcoaeokndoed kda ceg aodagoiaankig enuad nui natniglut aitnlhi nttihic ulkictn hk(tM ii(lcM iktlhli(eilMclrek 2ri 0l( 2lM0e07r0i,l7 2lpe,0 .rp0 1 27.5 01,005p)70.. ,)O 1.p O5t.h 01te)h5.r0e rOr)e. rtcOheipcethirepesre reos rc foe impcf iemepsaeetosa c ftoo mcfo omkeoaeekdtaec tdi onc ioo nmok mkeildekidl kia nir naemr mceui cliskluiktnosa atmrtorreemaa cdrcauyuirts syitoto onmmalaa rMryyu slim cuisine to this day. One of the most prominent of these is the mansaf (فسنم),
ini ntr atrdaidtiiiinontin ottarnralaa ddMl iiMttuiioosunlnismaalillm MMc ucuuiusssiillnsiimimen et cco utu otiihs stiiihnns ieeds tatdooya .tty hhO. iiOssn eddn aaeo yyfo ..t fhOO tehnn emee moooffso ttt shhpt eerp ommrmooomissnttie nppnerrtn oootmm fo iitfnnh teeehnnseetts oeois ff i tstthh hteeeh ssemee maiinssa snttahhsf aeep(f rفmme(فaapسnnنaسمssr)aنaeم,ff d) ,(( fفroسmنم ))r,,i ce (or bulgur), mutton, yoghurt, and pine nuts. The mansaf is currently considered a
prperpeapraerdpep rdfrere pofprmaoarrm eredid cr feifcr ro(eoo m(mro br rr iubiccleugel (ug(oorur)r,r b b)mu,u mlulggtuutuotrrt)no),,,n m my, ouyugtotthtgoouhnnr,ut,y ,ry toao,n gagdhnhu dupr ritpnt,,iea na nnend udntp uspi.tin sTn.e ehTn enhu umet tsmas.n.a TsTnahhsfe aeifs m m icsaau ncnrussraraefrfn eiitsnsl ytccl uuycror crrneoesnnnintdtslliayeydtr iceceoorodnenn daassl ii addJ oeerrrdeedadn aaia n dish, but it is eaten in other parts of the Middle East as well (Basan 2006, p. 70).
nantaiotinoanlan nJlaoa Jtrtoidioorandnnaaailnla JiJnoao rndrdd idasahnins,ihi aab,nn ub dtud iitits s hiihts, , i besba uuettaet itnitet niiisns i eneoaa tothteteenhnre ipirnn ap oroattthsrh teoser fro ptpfha aterhrt tMess oMiodffi dtdthhldeeel E MeM aEisidadtd sdatl sleae wsE E waeaslselt tl(a lBa s(saBw swaaesnealll nl2( 0 (B2B0a0a6s0s,a6 apn,n .p 2 72.0 0070)00.6 6),., p p.. 7700))..
3.2. The Muslims Cook Kid’s Meat in Milk Due to the Nutritional/Medical Compatibility of the Two Products
3.23.. 2T. hTeh Me33 M..u22s..ul TTismlhhimsee CMMs oCuuoosksol liKkimm iKdss ’iCsdC ’oMsoo oMkek aKetK aiiditnd ’i s’nMs M MMilekiea lDatk t iDunien uM teMo i tltoikhl kteDh NDeu Nueu teturoitt totrihiottenih oNaenl/NuaMlt/urMeittdrieiiocdtniaioacln alC/laM oCl/meModmpieacpdtaiailbct CiialbiloitlCmyit oopymfa ottpfhi bateiht lTieibt wyTil owiot fPyo t rhPooefrd otTuhdwceutoscT twPs rooPduroctdsu cts
Humoralism, or the doctrine of the four temperaments, is a nutritional/medical theory
HHumumoroaHrHlaisulumimsmm,o or,or aarol liirsts mhmte,h, o edr ootrdh coettcrhditneroi ecn dteroo infco etfrt oihnftehet h ef eoofffuo oruut hrrt eet etmemfmoppueperrer aarmtamemmeenneptntsest,r, sai,is ms aisean n uatsn t,ru nittiuirsoit trniaioat ilno/nanmula/tmelr/dimetiicdoeaindclaaitchll/a oemltor hiergteydhionieocroaryaitrl giy ni ntgha eftrionorgmy the Hellenistic world, utilized in Christian western and Muslim eastern medicine
oroigriigniantaifontrirognim ggfir nofthramoetim nHthg ete hlf lreHeo nHmeilsel tetlihlnceeinws tiHsioctre ilclwdl ew,onuroiltsdritlli,id czu ,e wtudilotiiizrnlilezddCe, hdiunr tii insClti izhCaernhdisr wtiisinaet insCat newhr rnweissaettiensatrdennr M nwa nueadssnlt dieMmr Mnue suaalnissmtldiem rMen aeusmatsseeltridemnir cn mie nuameesndetuteidicnrlii nttncih ielmne te h1e ed7ti1hc7i ntcheen tury. According to this doctrine, there are four elements (earth, air, fire, and water),
unutnilt itlh tehc u1een7 n1ttt7ihult rhtcyhe .ceneA t1nuc7tcrutyohr.r y cdA.ei Acnncgtcouctrroodyrti.d nhAiginsc gtcdo oot rotchd ttirihsnin igdse odt,octoht tcrehitrnrieisen ,ad erto,he ctefhtroreeiurn areer e,ae ltr ehfemo efuroeernu eatrslr eee(lme efaomeruntehrtn s,et a(lseei r(ma,erfiaetrhrnet,th, saa, i (nare,id arf,riw rtfheiar,, te aae,n riar)dn,, f ffdwooir uuwaerr,t a eapptrneee),drrr )ss ,woo nnaaatleliirtty)y, types (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic), and four humors (blood,
fofuoru pr epretsfyroospunoerans lpai(tlseyiart ysntoy gtnpuyaeipnlsie ets(y,s c(atshnyaogpnlueegsriuni c(iens,,am ecn, hegclouhalnoienlcreeihcr,o ,i cclmih,c om,elaleeanrlndaiccn,hp cmohhlloieecllg,ia cmna, ncaahdtnio cdpl)i ,hcpa,lh nealgdnemgdfoma uptairhctl)hiec, ug)a,mm nadonar tdfsioc (f)ubo, rluao nhro dudhm ,ufyomoeurlorslro yhs(web u(lllbmoboloiwolodeor ,,sdb p ,i(h lbell,eo gpomhdl,,e gm, and black bile) in nature and in the human body. The humors reflect one’s
yeylelollwow bay inbleeidll,l eobp,w lhpa lchebklgielmbegi,m l, epa,)h nialndeng dnbma lbat,u lcaakrcne kbda i nblbedill)ae iic)nn ki t nnhb aeinltehau)tur ueimrn ea a nnnaadnbt duoin rdie nyt .h atTneh dhehe uihnhmu umtamhnaeo n brh sobudromeydfla.y enT.c htTbeoho ndehe yuh’.sm uTtmoehmroes r phsre eurrfmealefmlcoteetrec msnot tnproeaeenfn’rlesaed ’mcstn eaontnut era’ens d nature and also influence one’s physical and mental behavior.
tetmempeprearamtaenmmednepatn elastr noaadmnin dnefl annuttaue atnrunecrd eae n onadnant edau’ lsrasepols haoinny idfsnli ucfalaeluslneoacn neicn doef nlmouenee’esnn ’cptsae hpl oyhbnsyeiechs’aiascl va pailhon ayrdn.s dmic maeln eatnantlda b lm ebheeahnvatiavoli rob. re.h avior. The combination of the humors and their relative proportion in the body change from person to
ThTeh ceo cmoTmTbhihbneeian cctaoiootmminob bnoii nfno atafht ttieihoo hnen uh oomuff mtothhroeser hahsn uuadmmn dtooh rtreshsi eraa innrred drlea ttlhthaievetiiiervr perre erplolaarptotioipvvroeetir poptirnrooo nippn oio ntrrht ttieihoo benn ob iidnnoyd tt hhyceh ec abhbnoaogdndeygy fe crc hofhramaonnm gpge eeppr fefesrrrrooossnmmoo nnt opp, t eaoerrn ssdoo nnth ttoios is the source of people’s different temperaments; some are phlegmatic (indifferent
pepresrosno,n pap, neaedrrnss dotoh nnti,h,s a iaisnsn iddtsh tttehhh iesisso siuisosru tcthrhece eeo s sfoo opfuu erprocceepeol opeofl’fes p p’dsee oidofpfipefllfereee’’srnse dtnd ittife fftmfeeermrpeeenpnrteta trmteaemmmenpeptnesert;r saas;mo msmoeenmnet tseas; r;a essro oepmm hpelehe algaermrgeema ppthaihctll iee(cgig n(mmidnaaiadfnttfiiidecfcfr e(se(irlinnonetdnwd itif ffbfeeyrr eennnattt ure), choleric (irritable), or melancholic (inclined to depression). Any disruption of
anadn dsl oslwoaawn nbdd yb s ysnllo aonwtwautb rubeyry)e,n )nca, hatcuothurloeerlr)ee,i)crc, ihcc(ioh r(lorierilrtreaiirctbiac(lbie r(l)rie,ri )tor,ai rtob amrlbe m)lee,l)eoa,ln raocmnrh cemohllaoiecnll iacc(nhi n(coichnllioiccnll(iieicnnd e(c ditlnio nct oledi dnedpeteodrpe drtseosesi podsrineeop)sn.s r)Aie.o sAnnsy)ino. ydnA i)dns. riyAsurdnptuihytspie rotd uinboips anotrli uafoo npnfc tioeo fbnte hotewf een the elements of which the body is constructed or its humors results in illness,
thteh eb ablaalnbtahcaneleca ebnb ecabtelewabtnweeceteewn eb netehe ttnewh teeeh leeeenlmee mlteehnmeetn seet nloset fmso wfoe fwhnwithcshhi coi hctfhh wteht hhebei ocbdbhooy dtd hyiyse i icsbs ooccnodosnyntrs siuttsrrc uuctcecotdtnee sddot rroo uirrtc siitt teshsd huh oumurmmo iortossrr shrse ruresemsusuluotlstrls tsis ni rniw enisil hlluilnilnllleteness se sasis,n , ss w,ti alhltneile eosfsa ,e quilibrium is the basis for recovery (on this theory and its application in Medieval
wwhihleil ea asswt tasahtttaeielt eeoo ffao eefsq qteauuqtiiuellii ibbolirrfbi iueurqimmuum iiilssi bittshrh iteeuh bmeba ab sisiasis sst ifhfsoo erfr ob rrreae csrcoeiosvcv oefeorvryrey rr( yoe(o cn(nootv nhteh irtsihyst i hts(hoe teonhor etyrohyari syna ntdahdnie tdoist rsaiy tpas a ppanlppidclpi acilttaiiscto aianotpinoipn niln iMic nMae tdMmieoideeenivdd eiaiivncela ivmMnla eele sddeiiceei:v n(aeTl albot 1978, pp. 391–428)).
mmedeidciinciesmne seeee :sdee(:iT ec(a:iT nl(abTelo abstleob1eto9 :1 t7( 9T817,9a8p7l,b 8ppo,. ptp 3.1p 939.1 973–1894–,12 4p–82p4)8..2 )38).9) )1. –428)). Muslim doctors influenced by the Hellenistic medical heritage claimed that the way in which
MMusulismlim MMd oduucosstlcoliitmrmosr disdn ooifnclcutftoloeurnresscn eiicnndeflf dlbuu yebe nnythc cteeehdd eH bbHeyylel tetlhhlneeeins HtiHisctee ilclmll eemenndiiessidtctiiaicccl a mmhl eeherddeitiriaccitagaalleg hhecee lacrriliitamtaaimggeedee cdctlhl aataihimtma tteeh ddteh tetwhh waaatyta ttyihhn feeio n wwow wdhaa iyihycshi icpin nhr ewwphhairiccehhd affects one’s temperament and health. How meat is prepared, for example by frying
fofoodo dis ipsf fropoeoropeddap riiasesrd pep drareef apfpefaafcrertecsedt dos a naofefnff’eeesc c’ttstes stm oeomnpneeep’r’sesa rtmteaemmmenpeptne eartrn aaamdmn dehen enhtatel aaatnhlntd.dh H. hh Hoeeawaollwt tmhh .m.e HHaetoao iwtws ips mm rpeeerpaaeatpt riiaessrd pep,dr rfee,o ppfroaa errrxe eeaddxm,a, ffmpoorlrpe ele bexx yavba memyfrr pysfprulilyenesig bnbc ygyo offrrkyyiininnggg, and the ingredients with which it is cooked (for instance vinegar, salt, water, and
vevresrussu scv ovceoeorkrossiukunsigsn c,gc oao,o noakdknin idntgh g,teh,a eanin ndigndtrg hetredheieiden inigentrnsge trdswe idweitnihiett nshwt wswh iwithchhiictw hhit h wiiitsc h hiscic oicthooi ksiotekc dioes od (ckf oo(efordo kir(ne fidosntr as(itfnnaocnsret ca ievnn iscvnteiaenvngeiacgnerae, rgvs,ai ansrl,ate,slg tawa,l rtwa,, towaselatriaevl, ttreea,, rnowa,dinala) nd thed ar,os laainnvde e ffect on the temperament that the meat creates in the human body (Mayer-Chissick 2011,
oloivliev oei ol)io olh)il alih)vsa heas ano asi nela)f efnhefafceestf c foatenn oc tenthfo ftehen cteett h tmoeenmp tetephrmeaerm ptaemeemrneaptnm tethr etaahntma ttthet thneh atme tt hmetahaetet a tchmtr ceeer ameataetetscae irtsne ci antrhte etaehs theei unsh miutnhma tenhah enb uho bmudomyda n(yaM n(bM aboyodaedyyrye-(Cr M(-MhCaihsaysiyesipecsrkri-.c -C 1C2k6h0 h211ii0s)1ss1.s, i 1Iiccn,k k h 22i00s11 l11o,,n g commentary on Exodus 23: 19, Ibn Ezra claims that for practical/medical reasons
p.p 1. 6116)1. )Ip.pn .I. n h11 6i6hs11 i)ls).o. lInIonngn hhgcio iscsmo llomomnnmgegn ecctonaomtrmayrm myoe neonn nEtta xaErroyxydo ouodnsnu E2sE 3x2x:o3 o1d:d 9u1u,9 sIs,b2 2In3b3: n:E 11 z9E9r,z,a IrI bacbnl nacE liEamzizmrsra atshc ctlaahlatia miftmo sfrso t prth hrpaaatrctaf tofcioctraircp lpa/rmlra/amcectditeciidcacaailc/ll/a mMmrle reeaueddssaoiliscicnmoaaslnl s rsr ec eaoasosooknn kssi d’s meat in milk, rather than lamb. In general, meat and milk have a different nature
MMusulismlimsMM csuo ucossolkloiim mkk isksd cic’doso ’omosk kme kkaeitida dit’n’s si n mmm mieelakaitl,tk iri,nan rt mahmtehiilrlke ktr,h, rtrahaantath hnleae rlmra ttmbhh.aab Inn.n I l lngaa memgnebben.r. eaIInrnla, gglm,e emennaeeetrra aaatln la,,d mnm dmee aamitltk iaal knhn dadhv ammev iaiell kkda hihdfaafiefvvfreeee rnaaet andd nntii ffdanffte eauirnrtreeu enonr rtetd nneaartt uutorre ec ook them it is necessary to adapt them to each other. It takes more time to cook solid
anadn din i no raaodnnredddre iitrnno t ooocro rcddooeekorr kt ttho oteh cmceoomo oitkk ii ttst hh insee emnmcee icisttes isiasssr anynre eytcco eet osassd saaaadrrpyyatp t ttooth taeahdmdeaam ptpo ttt oetthha eeceamhmc ho tt toooh teeeharae.cc rhIh.t Iototat tthkhaeeekrsre. .m sII ttmo ttraaoekkr eteeis smt immmeo oteror ete oc tto iicmommokoeee ks attoo tos lo ticchdlooia odonk k i sts oodlloiiddes milk. Moreover, the meat of different animals has unique features and not all types
mmeaeta tth tahmmna eneiata itdtt t otdhheoaasne nmsi itmitld dkiol.ok eMe.s sMmo mroielirkolek.vo.Me vMre,o ortr,hre teoeho vmeve emre,rat,et hat ohet feom dfm eidfaefitaefforte eforndfe tnid fatfin efafrienmerinematnlaastn lhasi namhsiama usls anulhisnqa ihusqaeuus fen eu ifaqnetuaiuqteruuefreese afasten uaadrnteu dnsr oeantsno adatol nalfn dltomly tntpyeaoeapltslt e atsayl lrp etey sspuoeifsta ble for cooking in milk. He writes: “For it is not the custom today in the land of
ofo mf meaeta moat rfea eamr etse uasariuttea iatsbaurlbeei tl aesfoub frlioet acrf boocolroeko cifoknooigrnk gciinno iog nmk iniminlkmgil. k iiHl.nk H e.m Hewi elwrkiw.tr eiHrtsie:te se“ :sw F:“or“FriFot eoirts r i:i tis t“ iFisns oonnrto o itttth ttiehhs eecn uccosuutt sosttthmooemm tco tutodosdadtaoyaym yini nit notth dhtehea Iyellsaa hlinnanmddn tadohoe ffelo I tfslo ah nemdaat eollaf mb cooked in milk, as lamb has in it much phlegm as does milk, and this is harmful
IsIhsmhmaeale tItolso ht eoemaa ettaa lleata lmlm atobmb ce bcoao otc okolakeomedkdebi ndi nc moi nmoi lkmiklek,idla,k sai,n slaa lmsma lmiablkmbh, abhas sah islan aismni ti nibmt ihmut acmushc uihpnc h hpilt he pmglhemulgecmgahsm apd shao dslee osdgemomse i mslak smi, ladkinl,ok dae, nsat dhmni dstihl iktishs, h iaisasn irhdsma a nhtfrhdaumir lstmfa huinsuflu d shl a tihsr munsofuits le aten, and because kid’s meat has no phlegm, and when it is young it is hot, kid’s
anadn dth tuhsnua oniss td iens taonhtteou nets a, eitasaen tnned,no abt, neaecdnaa tdube ensbec,e aakcunaisdude’s s bekm eikdceia’dasu t’mssh emae ksaeitnda hot’ sahp smah nsle eonag topm hhp,alhaesl gnenmdgomw, pa,hh naeldenn gdwimt whi,s ehanyen ondiut inwits g ihysie toyniuos niuthg noi sgit t, y ikitos i udishn’ sohmgtmo ,e itktea, iatikd stii ’sdihs s c’oscot o,o okkkeidedd’ sin milk”.
mmeaeta its icsimon cooemkaoetikl dikes d”i nc. oi nmo kmilekidl”k .i ”n. milk”. Aside from the agreeable taste of dishes that include meat and milk, Ibn Ezra is of the opinion
AAsidsied efr oAfArmossimi ddthe ete fhfr reaoo gmamrget rehtehaeebeaa lbaegl gretera eetsaaetbseat lbeoel feto a dfts aidtssehitseoeh fsoe dtfsh i dstahhitsae histn eitcsnhl ucathltduaiendt cemiln umecdaleueta damt enae dnma dtmea amintl kdial,kn mI,db iI nlbmk n,EiI lzEbkrnz,a rI Eaibsz n iros aE fo iztfshr toaeh f ieotsth hp ooaeipfnto iiatnpoh idnieoni nsoioh pn iontfhi okanitd ’s meat in milk has healthy nutritional qualities. According to Ibn Ezra, judging by
thtahta at ad idasthhidsa hoits foha k fdo ikdfisi’kdhsi ’ mdso ’fmes kameitad ietn’ asi tnmmi mnielkamilt kh ii lanhks am hhsa iehlsakelh athhelatayhsl ytnhh uenytaurnlitttruhiiotytrin ointaniuloa tqnlr uiaqtaliuolqaintuliaieatlisl eiq.t sAui.e aAcslc.icotAcireodcsrc.id noAirgndc gtciono t rgoIdb tIniobn nEgIb zEtnroza rEI,a bzj,unr jda uE,tgdhzjiugneradi gnd,g gbjoiu nycbdtg yrgi binnyeg t ohbfey temperaments kid’s meat is considered “dry” and “hot”, while lamb is cold and
thteh ed odcotdcrthitonrecie nt dreoion foc ettfre oitmfnetmepe emporfeap rmteaermmeanmeptnseet rnskat imskdik’edsin d’smt’s sm ekmaeitdea ait’ss t isicms occenooasnnti dssiiiesdd receerodreen dd“s id““drddeyrrr”yey d””a naa“ndndd dr“y “h”“ho hotao”tn”t,” d,w, w “whhhihiloleietl ”ell,a a lmwmambhb ibliiess icslcoa occmllododnbl adt anai nsidan dncsc do oml ndtu aacinhnd sp hlegm. Other medieval doctors voice similar opinions. The Spanish doctor Rabbi
cocnotnatianisnm csmo unmucthcauhicpn hphs lhpmelhgeumlgecmg.hmO . pOt.h hOtlehertgehmrme rme. dmOeidetehvideeaivrlea vdmla odlec odtdocioretcosvtravoslor svidc ooveicocsteiiocm ress ii lmsavimrioloiaiclprea i rons piioomipnniiisnloa.inroT snho. sepT. iShnTpeihoa eSnn psiSs.ap hnTaidhnsoehisc hStdo podracoRntcoiatsNrboh brRa idtaRhNobaacbabntitob hbria e Rnna bYbeobnei l Falaquera, who lived in the second half of the 13th century, writes: “Lamb is very
NNatahtahna nYbN oebaneetl nhYF aoaYneloa lbe qFelu anFel araYalqao,uqeweul rhFeaora, allwa,i vqwheuohde olriia nvl,ie tvwhdee hdinos ie ntlchi ovtehne esdde shicenoac nltofhdnoe dfh s tahehlcafe olof1n f3od ttf hh htehca eel1fn 3 1ottu3hft r thcyhe ,cenwe t1nru3itrttueyhrs, y :cw,e“ nwLritatruemirtsey:b s,“ :iw Ls“avLrmieatrembysm :bi ms“ o iLoviss aietvsmr teayranb ynd i d sc covoledlrdy a nd sticky and it has many excesses [=“secretions” of unnecessary harmful waste, in
mmoiosti sat naamdnn dodcoi cssltotd ilac dank ndyadn ac dsnot ldisdctkii atcyknh ydaa ns asdmnti dciatk nihyty a hasean xmsdc m eaistna shyne asyes x[ e=mcx“ecassensesecyssr ee e[stx= i[co“=esn“sesssc”eercseor tf[ei=out“innossnne”ces rc”oee fot siufso anunrnnsye”nch eoeacfsre sumsansrfaynur elyhcw aehrsaamssratmferuy,fliu nhwla AAwarrsmraatasebfbt,ui eicilc,n : :w i nتa لاstضe, فi]]n”” (Amar and Buchman 2004, p. 127).
AArarbaibc:i c(ت:AA تلاrmaضلاbaضiفrc]”a:ف ] nت”(Ad (لاAmBضumaفcr]ah ”arm n(aAdann mdB 2uaB0rcu 0hac4mnh,dmpa n.Ba 1un220 c27h00)4m.0,4 ap,n .p 12.2 01702)47. ,) .p . 127). This is also stated by the physician and poet Ibn Zuhr of Seville (1094–1162), who said that
ThTihs isis isaTT lashholiiss sos i tsiassat taleastdloes dosb tyasbt tyaeth tdteehdb epy bhptyhyh esytihpcseiihac yinpas hniacy niasadinnc dipaa nonpde otape nItob deIn btp nIZob uenZthuZ rIhub rohn fr o ZoSf ufeSvSheiervlv lieoilll fle( e1 S((0e119v004i99l–l441e––1 11(61112066)292, )4)w,,– ww1h1hoh6o o2ss )ata,szi adiawdir dathth hhotaaah rttsa aattzli -dagr hathahnaarat m (مَنغَ لا ريغِ صَ = young sheep, i.e., lamb) contains much phlegm and produces excess
tztazraarhaahra aatrlzl --aagglr-hhagaahhnnaaaarn mmaalm -((gم َنh(غَمaلَناnغَ لرaا mيرغِ صي َغ(ِمصَ َن==غَ ل ا=y yر ooيyuغuِoصnَnugg n= sgs hh yseehoeeueppen,,p igi.,.e esi...h,,e le.la,ae mlmpa,bmb i)).be cc.)o,o cnlnoattmanaitinbans)isn cmmso umnuctcuahhicn phpsh h pmllehegulgemcmghm aapn nhaddnle dppgr rmpoord doauundccduee cssppe erhesoxx leecdcxgeeucsmscesses psisn he lxtehcgeem sbs ody (Ibn Zuhr 1992, p. 21). Nonetheless, it is notable that other opinions were also
phplhelgemgm iipnn hi tntlheh tegehm bebo obiddnoy ydt (hy(IeIb b( nIbnboZ nZdu uyZhh ur(rIh1 b1r9n 991 92Z92,9u,p2 hp,. r.p2 121. 91)2.9)1.2N )N,. o pNon.n eo2etn1hteh)e.te lheNleesolsses,ns,i estit,ti h siites nl iensos tonsat,oba itbltae lbiestl h etnah ottahttoaa tobth tloehetr ehtrohe paor tipon oipintoihinnoeisnro swno wspe riwevenroieeaoir lcnease osldas owlv si onoei rcmee deadlisinoev al Arab literature. Muslim physician and poet Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Khalṣūn
vovioceicde din vi nom imceededide iivnea vmla Ale dArairebav blai tlle iAtrearrtaaubtru elri.t eMe. rMautsuulisrmlei.m pM hpuyhssyliicsmiiac inpa hnay nasdnic dpia opneo tae Mnt dMu pḥuaoḥmeatm mMmaudaḥ diab minb mnY aūYdsūu sifbu nIfb IYnb ūnK(s نhKuوafh صlIaṣbūlلṣnخnū Kنnبh ا)a, lwṣūhno lived in Andalusia in the 13th century, says that kharuf (فورُ خَ = lamb) is very hot (!)
(ن(ونصوصلخل خن( بننا)وب,ا ص)w, لwhخo hن olبiا v)l,ie vwde hdino i nAli vAnedndad liaunls uAiasni iadn i antlh utehs i1ea3 1 it3nht htche cene t1nu3trutyhr, y cs,ea snyatsyu tsrh ytah, tsa kath ykashr atuhrfu a(ftف (kفوhرُaوخrَرُu خَ=f (l=فa lmوaرmُbخَ)b i)=s ilvsa evmreyabrn y)hd iohs mt o v(to!e )(ir s!y)t ahnodt (i!s) not suitable for those who have a humid stomach or white bile (Ibn Khalṣūn 1996, p. 84).
anadn dm moiosatin satdn a dmn dios iinsst on ato nstud si uitsai tbnalobet lf eso ufroi ttrha tbohlsoee s fweo rwh tohh hoo saheva ewv aeh hoa u hhmuavmidei dast hostumommaciadhc shotr oo wmr whaichtheit oberi bl ewi l(ehI bi(tIneb nKb ihKleah l(aṣIūblṣnnū Kn19 h19a96l9,ṣ 6pū, .np 8 I.14 n89) 4.9a )6n. ,y p .c 8a4se)., Ibn Ezra expresses the outlook that milk is similar in its qualities to lamb and it too
InI na nayn yca Icsnae sa, enI,b yInb c nEa szEerz,a r Iaebx nep xErpezrsresase sesex tsph trehe oes suoetuslo ttlohokeo ktoh utahttla omto miklk itl hkisa itss im msiimillkai lrias ir ns ii nmit sii tlqsa urq aiunlai tliiitetsis eq tsuo t aolla ilmtaiembs bato nah dlnaa dsimt a itbt oh toaiogn ohd lietv teolo o f phlegm. Hence, their combination creates a mixture with considerable phlegm that
hahsa as ha ihghihga hlse lvae ehvlei ogl fho p fl hepvlheelgle mogfm. pH.h Helneegcnemc, et. ,hH teheiern iccroe cm,o tmhbeibnirian ctaiootmino bncir nceraaettaieotsen as c mar emiaxtitexustru ear wme wiitxhitt uhcro ceno wsnidsitiehdr ecarobanlbesl iped hpelrhealmgbemgliegm thph thta hcltear get amte t haant imbalance in the body and harm it. Kid’s meat is more suitable for cooking in milk
mmigihgth ctr cmeraeitgaeht eat n ac nrime iambteab laaanlna cinmec eibn ai nltah tnehc ebe o bidnoy dt hyae na dbn odhd ahyra marmn idt .i thK. aiKrdmi’ds ’imst .m eKaeitad it’s s i msm moeraoetr esius s imutaiotbarlbee l esfou frio tcaro bcoloeko ifknoigrn ngcinoo i tonm ok mniinllkiygl k di nu em tiolk th eir phlegm-related differences but also because of its “hot” temperament while milk
nonto otn olnyl nydo udte uo teno tl toyh tdehiuere ipr t hopl htehlgeemgirm- rpe-hrlealeltagetdme dd-r idefflieaffrteeerndec ndecisfe fbse urbetu natlc aseolss bob eubctea acualssuoes obef eo icfta siut “ssh e“o hoto”f t it”tes tm e“mhpoeptr”ear mtaemmeneptn ewtr wahmiishle ei“l nmect om iwllkdihl ”ki l aen mdi ltkh us they balance each other. Due to the excess phlegm in lamb, Arab physicians
is is“ c“oclodl”di s”a “nacdno dltdh ”tuh sau nsth dte htyeh yub sab laathlnaecnyec ebe aaeclaahcn hco etoh teeharec. rhD. oDuteuh eeto rt. otDh teuh eee xteocxe cstehss esp ehpxlheclgeesmgsm pin hi nllea glmammb ,bi nA, Arlaarmba bbp ,h pAyhsryiacsbiiac inpashn ys sicians
Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12
Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12
In the chapter “Milk dishes” he records half a dozen stews of meat and vegetables boiled at
In the chapter “Milk dishes” he records half a dozen stews of meat and vegetables boiled atl ength in “Persian milk”, which appears to be yoghurt. One of the conspicuous dishes in this group
length in “Persian milk”, which appears to be yoghurt. One of the conspicuous dishes in this groupi s the madira (اريدام), which consists of meat, onions, leeks, and spices. The ingredients are cooked in
is the madira (اريدام), which consists of meat, onions, leeks, and spices. The ingredients are cooked ina pot at length until the liquids evaporate and then mixed with sour yoghurt, mint, and lemon juice
a pot at length until the liquids evaporate and then mixed with sour yoghurt, mint, and lemon juicea nd cooked again until thick (Miller 2007, p. 150). Other recipes of meat cooked in milk are customary
and cooked again until thick (Miller 2007, p. 150). Other recipes of meat cooked in milk are customaryi n traditional Muslim cuisine to this day. One of the most prominent of these is the mansaf (فسنم),
in traditional Muslim cuisine to this day. One of the most prominent of these is the mansaf (فسنم),p repared from rice (or bulgur), mutton, yoghurt, and pine nuts. The mansaf is currently considered a
prepared from rice (or bulgur), mutton, yoghurt, and pine nuts. The mansaf is currently considered an ational Jordanian dish, but it is eaten in other parts of the Middle East as well (Basan 2006, p. 70).
national Jordanian dish, but it is eaten in other parts of the Middle East as well (Basan 2006, p. 70).
3.2. The Muslims Cook Kid’s Meat in Milk Due to the Nutritional/Medical Compatibility of the Two Products
3.2. The Muslims Cook Kid’s Meat in Milk Due to the Nutritional/Medical Compatibility of the Two Products
Humoralism, or the doctrine of the four temperaments, is a nutritional/medical theory
Humoralism, or the doctrine of the four temperaments, is a nutritional/medical theoryo riginating from the Hellenistic world, utilized in Christian western and Muslim eastern medicine
originating from the Hellenistic world, utilized in Christian western and Muslim eastern medicineu ntil the 17th century. According to this doctrine, there are four elements (earth, air, fire, and water),
until the 17th century. According to this doctrine, there are four elements (earth, air, fire, and water),f our personality types (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic), and four humors (blood,
four personality types (sanguine, choleric, melancholic, and phlegmatic), and four humors (blood,y ellow bile, phlegm, and black bile) in nature and in the human body. The humors reflect one’s
yellow bile, phlegm, and black bile) in nature and in the human body. The humors reflect one’st emperament and nature and also influence one’s physical and mental behavior.
temperament and nature and also influence one’s physical and mental behavior. The combination of the humors and their relative proportion in the body change from person to
The combination of the humors and their relative proportion in the body change from person top erson, and this is the source of people’s different temperaments; some are phlegmatic (indifferent
person, and this is the source of people’s different temperaments; some are phlegmatic (indifferenta nd slow by nature), choleric (irritable), or melancholic (inclined to depression). Any disruption of
and slow by nature), choleric (irritable), or melancholic (inclined to depression). Any disruption oft he balance between the elements of which the body is constructed or its humors results in illness,
the balance between the elements of which the body is constructed or its humors results in illness,w hile a state of equilibrium is the basis for recovery (on this theory and its application in Medieval
while a state of equilibrium is the basis for recovery (on this theory and its application in Medievalm edicine see: (Talbot 1978, pp. 391–428)).
medicine see: (Talbot 1978, pp. 391–428)). Muslim doctors influenced by the Hellenistic medical heritage claimed that the way in which
Muslim doctors influenced by the Hellenistic medical heritage claimed that the way in whichf ood is prepared affects one’s temperament and health. How meat is prepared, for example by frying
food is prepared affects one’s temperament and health. How meat is prepared, for example by fryingv ersus cooking, and the ingredients with which it is cooked (for instance vinegar, salt, water, and
versus cooking, and the ingredients with which it is cooked (for instance vinegar, salt, water, ando live oil) has an effect on the temperament that the meat creates in the human body (Mayer-Chissick 2011,
olive oil) has an effect on the temperament that the meat creates in the human body (Mayer-Chissick 2011,p . 161). In his long commentary on Exodus 23: 19, Ibn Ezra claims that for practical/medical reasons
p. 161). In his long commentary on Exodus 23: 19, Ibn Ezra claims that for practical/medical reasonsM uslims cook kid’s meat in milk, rather than lamb. In general, meat and milk have a different nature
Muslims cook kid’s meat in milk, rather than lamb. In general, meat and milk have a different naturea nd in order to cook them it is necessary to adapt them to each other. It takes more time to cook solid
and in order to cook them it is necessary to adapt them to each other. It takes more time to cook solidm eat than it does milk. Moreover, the meat of different animals has unique features and not all types
meat than it does milk. Moreover, the meat of different animals has unique features and not all typeso f meat are suitable for cooking in milk. He writes: “For it is not the custom today in the land of
of meat are suitable for cooking in milk. He writes: “For it is not the custom today in the land ofI shmael to eat lamb cooked in milk, as lamb has in it much phlegm as does milk, and this is harmful
Ishmael to eat lamb cooked in milk, as lamb has in it much phlegm as does milk, and this is harmfula nd thus is not eaten, and because kid’s meat has no phlegm, and when it is young it is hot, kid’s
and thus is not eaten, and because kid’s meat has no phlegm, and when it is young it is hot, kid’sm eat is cooked in milk”.
meat is cooked in milk”. Aside from the agreeable taste of dishes that include meat and milk, Ibn Ezra is of the opinion
Aside from the agreeable taste of dishes that include meat and milk, Ibn Ezra is of the opiniont hat a dish of kid’s meat in milk has healthy nutritional qualities. According to Ibn Ezra, judging by
that a dish of kid’s meat in milk has healthy nutritional qualities. According to Ibn Ezra, judging byt he doctrine of temperaments kid’s meat is considered “dry” and “hot”, while lamb is cold and
the doctrine of temperaments kid’s meat is considered “dry” and “hot”, while lamb is cold andc ontains much phlegm. Other medieval doctors voice similar opinions. The Spanish doctor Rabbi
contains much phlegm. Other medieval doctors voice similar opinions. The Spanish doctor RabbiN athan ben Yoel Falaquera, who lived in the second half of the 13th century, writes: “Lamb is very
Nathan ben Yoel Falaquera, who lived in the second half of the 13th century, writes: “Lamb is verym oist and cold and sticky and it has many excesses [=“secretions” of unnecessary harmful waste, in
moist and cold and sticky and it has many excesses [=“secretions” of unnecessary harmful waste, inA rabic: تلاضف]” (Amar and Buchman 2004, p. 127).
Arabic: تلاضف]” (Amar and Buchman 2004, p. 127). This is also stated by the physician and poet Ibn Zuhr of Seville (1094–1162), who said that
This is also stated by the physician and poet Ibn Zuhr of Seville (1094–1162), who said thatt zarahar al-ghanam (مَنغَ لا ريغِ صَ = young sheep, i.e., lamb) contains much phlegm and produces excess
Religions2018,9,174 6of12
tzarahar al-ghanam (مَنغَ لا ريغِ صَ = young sheep, i.e., lamb) contains much phlegm and produces excessp hlegm in the body (Ibn Zuhr 1992, p. 21). Nonetheless, it is notable that other opinions were also
phlegm in the body (Ibn Zuhr 1992, p. 21). Nonetheless, it is notable that other opinions were alsov oiced in medieval Arab literature. Muslim physician and poet Muḥammad ibn Yūsuf Ibn Khalṣūn
voiced in mmededieivevala lAArarabb liltieterraatuturree. .MMuusslilmim pphhyyssiicciiaann aanndd ppooeett MMuuḥh.aammmmaadd iibbnn YYuū¯ssuuff IIbbnn KKhhaalls.ṣu¯ūnn( (نوصلخ نبا)),, who lived in Andalusia in the 13th century, says that kharuf (فورُ خَ = lamb) is very hot (!)
(نوصلخ نبا),w whhool ilviveeddi ninA Annddaalulussiaiai innt thhee1 133tthh cceennttuurryy,,s saayyss tthhaatt kkhhaarruuff ((فورُ خَ == llaammbb)) iiss vveerryy hhoott ((!!))a anndd mmoiosits atnd is not suitable for those who have a humid stomach or white bile (Ibn Khalṣūn 1996, p. 84).
and moist anandd isi snonto stusiutaibtaleb lfeorf othrothseo swehwo hhoavhea av ehuamhuidm sitdomstaocmh aocrh wohritwe hbiiltee (bIbilne K(IhbanlṣKūhna 1ls9.u9¯n6, 1p9. 9864,).p . 84)I.n any case, Ibn Ezra expresses the outlook that milk is similar in its qualities to lamb and it too
In any case,I nIbann Eyzcraas ee,xIpbrnesEszersa theex poruetslsoeoskt htheaot umtliolko kist shiamtimlairl kini sitssi mquilaalritiinesi ttso qlaumalbit iaensdto itl atomobh aasn ad hitigtoho level of phlegm. Hence, their combination creates a mixture with considerable phlegm that
has a high lhevaesl aofh pighhlelgemve. lHoefnpchel, etghmeir. cHomenbcien,atthioenir ccroematebsin aa mtioixntucrree awteitsha comnisxitduerreabwleit hphcloengsmid tehraatbm leigphht lcergemate an imbalance in the body and harm it. Kid’s meat is more suitable for cooking in milk
might creatteh aant mimigbhatlacnrecae tiena tnheim bboadlya nacnedi nhatrhme bito. dKyida’ns dmheaartm is imt.oKried s’suimtaebalte ifsomr cooroeksiunigta ibnl emfiolkrn cooto okninlyg dinue to their phlegm-related differences but also because of its “hot” temperament while milk
Religinonost 2o0n18ly, 9 d, xu FRmeOe tliiRolgk iPtohnnEsEeo 2iRtr0 o R1p8nEh,V l9ylIe, ExgdW FmuO e -Rrt eoPlEatEhteRed iRr dEpVihfIfEleeWrge mn c-reesl batuetd adlsioff bereecnacuesseb ouf titasl s“ohobte”c ateumsepoefraitmse“nhto wt”6h toieflm e1 2mp eirlkai ms e“nctowl6d oh”fi 1lae2n d thus they balance each other. Due to the excess phlegm in lamb, Arab physicians
is “cold” anmdi lkthiuss“ ctohledy” baanldanthceu seathchey obtahlearn. cDeueea ctho otthhee re.xDceuses tophthleegemx ciens slapmhlbe,g Amrianb lapmhybs,iAciraanbs physicians

recommended trrheeccaoot mmit mmbeee annvddoeeiddd etthhdaa ott rii ttt hbbeae taa tvvhooeii ddpeehddle oogrrm tth hbaaett mtthhoeed ppifhhileleedgg mmby b bseek emmwooeddrii ffirioeeadds tbbiyyn gss,kk oeevwweeenrr brrooakaassinttiignn,gg o,, roo vveenn bbaakkiinngg,, oorr

cooking in vineccgooaoorkk oiinnr ggsp iinnic evvsii nn(Ieebggnaa rrZ oourrh ssrpp, ii1cc9ee9ss2 ((,II bpbnn. 2 ZZ1uu; Ihhbrrn,1 1K999h92a2,l,p ṣpū..n2 21 11;;9I I9bb6nn, K pK.h h8aa4lls.)ṣu.¯ ūnn1 1999966,,p p.. 8844))..
I have found nIIo h heaaxvvpeel iffcooiutu nrndedcn onomoe mxepxelpnicldiicatitrtie orcneocsmo bmmyme Mnedunasdtliaiomtnio spnbhsy ybMsyic uMisalnuimss ltipomh c yposmhicyibasiinncseia tnkoiscd ot’osm mcboienmaetb kiwindei’t shkm ide’as tmweitaht mwiiltkh,
milk, and therema insid lekvt,h eaennr dea nitsh ieemvrepe nriesa sensvioiemnn p tahrnea stism kioipdnr’etshs msaitoeknait dt ih’ssa ctmo kneiasdti’dsis emrceoedna tsf iiidnse ec roeenndosfiiudngeehree wdno iftuihngoehu etwn noiteuhegodhuin twgn iettoehd oiuntg nteoebdainlagn ctoe
balance it by cobitoabklayinncgcoe. o Iiknt i bncyog n.ctIornoacsktoi,nn mgtr.e aIdsnti ,ecvmoanelt drciaueslvtin,a lamcreyud lliiineteavrraaylt ucliurteelir nianatcurlyrue dliitenescr laruetudcirepese risne tcchilpuaedt secsoth mraebtcicinpoeem sl bathminabet lcaommbbainned lmamilbk
and milk prodpaunrcodtsd .m uFciotlskr. eFpxoraormdeuxpacletms, .p aFlneo ,raa nneoxananmyompnolyeum, sao nAu snadAnaonlnudysamilaunos uiarsen cAripencedi pableouobskioa onfkr orfmeroc impthete h be1o31ot3kht hfcreconemntut urthyre y p13utbhl ischenedtubryy
published by CpCaunabdnldiidsidah aeMdMa braytri tnCinealenllild iiniidncalcu lMuddeaser tssiensveevellreia rilan lrcerlcueicdpiepesse ssoeofv flealramamlb rb wewciitpihteh msm oilfikl lk apmprorbod dwuucicttshts, ,mssuiuclkchh paarsos ada dudicsitshsh , scuacllhe dasT ah adriisdha
called Tharida ((cاaديlرleاثd)) ttThhhaaattr cicdooann t(taاaدiiيnرnsاsث )l laatmhmabbt, , cssoppninitnaaaicnchhs, , mlammooibsist,t c schpheineeeassece,h,a, anmnddobi sbutu ttctehtree.re.I snIen,a naanondtoh tehbruerrt teerceri.cp iIepnet h atenhoaet uhtehro rrescuipgeg etshtes
author suggestsas stutuutfhffifoinnr ggsu llaagmmgebbs twws siittthuh fccfhihneegees lseae maanbnd dw bbiltalhca kcc khpeepepesppe eparne, rdc,i ncbinlnaacnmka mopneop, nop,neoiron, ncioisn,n nasna,mdan eodgng,e sog n(gMisoan(Mrst,i anarnetldilni e2eg0llg1is22 ,(0 M12a,rtpinpe.l4li3 2,08162),,
pp. 43, 86), andpa snpod.m 4se3o ,me 8v6ee)ne, v arneendco rsmeocmmomee nemdveeendnd raeeddcdoaimndgdm imnengildkme pdilr kaodpddruoicndtsgu tcmots imltkou pmttrooundt tuioncn tcsie ntrotca emirntu actiitnrocncui mrincus ctmaernstctaaeinns.c ceisr.cumstances.
For example, tFFhooerr Peeexxraasmmianpp lleep,,h ttyhhseei cPiPaeenrr ssMiiaannu ḥppahhmyymssiiacciidaa nni bMMn uuZḥh.aaakmmarmmiyaayddā iiabblnn-R ZZāzaaīkk’saa rr(iiRyyyyhāaa¯ zaaells--,RR (āa¯8zz6ī¯ı’5’ss– 9((RR25hh)aa zzeess,, ((886655––992255))
claimed that mucclltaatoiimmn eeidds “tthhhaoattt ”mm auunttdttoo tnnh uiisss ““rhhecooott””m aamnndden ttdhheuudss rtrheeccaoot mmthmmoseeenn wddeehddo ttnhheaaettd tthh toooss “eec wwoohhloo” tnnheeeee ddb ottdoo y““ cccoooooollk”” ittthh ee bbooddyy ccooookk iitt
in whey (matzalii nnل wصwْ hhمَ )ee,yy s u((mmmaaattczz (aaRll hلuصْs مَc))o,,r ssiauurmmiaaa)cc, a((RnRhdhu upss occmoorreiiagarrriiaaa)n),, aaatnend ds eppeodomms e(eagglr-raRanānazatīte’es s s1ee9ee8dd4ss, (pa(a.l -l1R-2Rā5az¯; zīa’¯ısn1 d199 8s8e44e,, pap.t. 112255;; aanndd sseeee aatt
length (Nikaeinllee enntgg attlhh. 2((NN01iikk2)aa)ee. iiHnn eeentt caaell,.. 2t2h00e11 22n))u))..t rHHiteeionnncceea,,l /ttmhheee dnniuuctatrrli ittoiiouontnlaaollo//mkm eeexddpiicrcaealsl sooeuudttl lobooyok kI beenxx ppErrzeerssass eewdda bbsy yn IoIbbtn n EEzzrraa wwaass nnoott
necessarily accennpeetcceeedss ssbaayrr iiellyyv eaarccyccoeenppettee addn bbdyy t heevevreeerr yywooennreee aaonntdhde ttrhh oeerpreein wwioeenrrees. oo Ittthh ieser rq oouppitiienn ipiooonnssss..i bIIttl eiiss t hqquautii ttseeo ppmooess ssdiibbidllee n ttohhtaa tt ssoommee ddiidd nnoott
strictly adhere tssottrr tiihccttellsyye aa vddihheweerrsee, ttioo.e tt.,hh teehsseeer vve iiweewwasss ,,a ii ..dee..i,,s ctthhreeeprreea nwwcaayss b aae tddwiisseccerrneepp taahnneoccyyre bbtieecttawwl eeheeenna lttthhhee dooirrreeettciicctiaavll ehhsee aaanllttdhh ddiirreeccttiivveess aanndd
actual practice.a accttuuaall pprraaccttiiccee..
3.3. Kid’s Meat i33s ..3P3..r KeKfieiddr’a’ssb lMMe teeoaa ttL iiassm PPbrr eeaffsee rrIaatbb Illsee Httooe LaLlaatmmhibber aa ss IItt IIss HHeeaalltthhiieerr
Ibn Ezra furtheIIrbb nnco EEnzztreraan fdfuusr rttthhheaertr c cocoonmntetbneindndsinstg ht ahmtactil okcmo ambnibndii nnkigindmg’s i mlmkileakan tda, nrkdaitd hk’seidrm ’tseh amatn,e ratahtt,eh r eamrthteheaart nothtfh aoent hmteherea tmoefaott hoefr oftahremr
farm animals, isfaa narismmso aaclnisai,mtiesdaal ssw,s oiitsch ia atsthseoed cpiwaotisetihdti vtwhee iqthpu oathsliietti ipevsoe osqiftu itvahleiis tq imeusaeolaiftti:t ehsi sofm tehaist: meat:
And do not beAA snnuddrp ddrioos enndoo ttt hbbaeet sspuuerroppprrliiess eeiddn ttthhhaaetts epp eepoolappclleees i innar ttehh enessoeet ppacllaaccuceessst oaamrreee dnn oo[tst haaocccucuuldsst tobomem: eeaddre [[ sshhoouulldd bbee:: aarree
accustomed] toaa eccccauutissnttgoo mmtheeedd ]m] tteooa ete aaottfii nnyggo utthhneeg mmgoeeaaattt soo. ffB yyeoocauuunnsgge ggaoollaa tttshs..e B Bpeehccayausuissceei aaanllsll ttahhdeem ppihht yythssiiacctii aannnoss aaddmmiitt tthhaatt nnoo
meat equals it, mmaneedaa ttt heeqqeyuu aaellvsse iintt,, paannerddm ttihhtee iyyt feeovvree tnnh epp eesrricmmkii.t tI iittt i ffsoo arrl stthhoee e ssaiitccekkn.. iIIntt iiSssp aaallsisnoo aeenaattdee nnA iifnnri cSSapp aaaniinnd aa nndd AAffrriiccaa aanndd
Eretz Israel, andEE rrPeeettzzrs IIissarr,a aaeenll,,d aa Bnnaddb PPyeelorrssnii.aa T,, aahnnisdd w BBaaasbb ayylllsooonn .t. hTTehh ciissu wswtoaamss aa ollssfoo t htthheee a ccnuucssiettoonmmts, oo“fft wtthhoee caahnnocciiiceeenn ttss,, ““ttwwoo cchhooiiccee
young goats” (yyGooeuunnneggsi sgg oo2aa7t:t ss9””) ,(( GG“weenneee pssiirsse p22a77r:: e99 ))a,, “y“wwoueen ppgrr eegppoaaarrte ef oaar yy yooouuunn”gg ( ggJuoodaagtt effoos rr1 yy3:oo 1uu5””) ,(( JJauundddgg eethss e11 33:: 1155)),, aanndd tthhee
priest would eappt rroiieenssett mwwaooluuell ddgo eeaaattt fooonnr eea m msiaanll eeo fggfooearaittn ffgoo rr( Laae ssviininti oocuffffsee rr6ii:nn 1gg9 (;(L L2ee3vv: i1itt9iicc–uu2ss0 )66.: : 1199;; 2233:: 1199––2200))..
Ibn Ezra projecItbs nf rEoIzmbrna t Ehpzer rorajeepaclrtisot yjfe rcootfms hf irtsoh meti mrtehea eltiotrye b aoilbift lyhicioas lft tihmiimseet itsmo. Hebietbo lsibacyiabsl l titcihmaalett sii.mn H eeexs. tseHanyessisv taehy apsta tirhntas et oxifnt etenhxseti evnes pivaertps aorft sthoef
Muslim world Mtkhideu’sMsl immuse lwaimto irswl dpo rkreilfdde’rskr iemdd’e soamvt eiesra potrtihesfeperrr rteyefdper eorsev doefro movteehraetor b ttheyecpareutsys eop fei tsm iose fahmte baeelatchtaybu esacena diut sciesh oihtieciasel.ht hIebyan la thnyd acnhdoicceh.o Iibcne.
Ezra does not sEItbaztnrea Et hdzreoa ensda ontueorste ns atoanttdes t tqahtueea tnlhiateiteunsra eot fua grneodaa qtn umdaiqlliukti aealssit oipefes grocoefaigtv omeadit lbmky ai lcsko panestrepcmeeirpvcoeerdiva breydy pcbohynyctsoeicnmitaepnmosrp aaosrry a pryhypshiycisaicnisa nass
he does with rhaesge ahdredode tsoo e wsthiwteh i vtrhaelgrueaegr dao rfdt ok tiotdh’tesh evmavelaualteu. eoInfo fkaikndiyd’ s’c samsmeea,e taf.rt .oInmIn a banniyby lciccaaaslse e,t ,ifmfrroeomsm gbboiibabtlli’iscc aamll titilimkm ewess aggs ooaatt’’ss mmiillkk wwaass
considered a foccooodnn sswiidditeehrre epddo asai ftfoiovooedd qw wuiatihtlhitp ipeosos is(tBiitvoiveoekq qu ouafla iPtliirteoisevs(eB (roBboosk o2ko7 f:o P2f7 rPo).rv oTevhrbeisrs b2ms7 i:2lk72: 7 w)2.7aT)s.h aTislhsmois ipmlkreiwlfkea rwsreaadlss oianlp sore pferrerfeedrriendt hine
the classical eratc hlbaees cscailcauasslseie cirata lw beearcasa cbuoesnceasiiutdsweer aiestd wc eoaansss iicedoren trsoei dddeeigraeesdsiet er(aPtosliiednrii gutoess 1dt9i(g3Pe8lis,n tB i(uoPsolik1n9 Xi3uX8s,V 1BI9oI3Io,8 kc, hBXaoXpoV.k I3 IX3I,;X c VhpII.I,3 c3h;Papre. u3s3s; 1 994,
Preuss 1994, ppP. .r5e65u16s)1s ) a1an9nd9d 4m,m eped. di5eie6vv1a)al lappnhhdyy ssmicicieaidaninses vaaasls wpwheeylllls iiicnniddaniiccsaa ttaeesdd wiittessl lmm ienedddiiicccaaallt ebbdee nnietesfif itmtss (eA(dAimcmaalar rb aeannndedfB itusc h(Ammanar2 a0n04d,
Buchman 2004,pB p.u.1 c12h26m6).)a. n 2004, p. 126).
The basis of theTT hhoeeu tbbloaasosiikss pooffr ettshheeen ooteuudtt llobooyok kI bppnrr eeEsszeernnatt eeoddn b btyyh eII bbqnnu aEElzzitrryaa ooofnn kttihhdee’ sqq muuaaellaiitttyy i soo nff okktii dda’’ ssn mmoreemaa ttt ihissa nnt oott aa nnoorrmm tthhaatt
developed amoddneegvv eetllhooepp eemdda saasmmesoo,n nbggu ttthh reea tmmheaarss ssteehsse,, bbswuutte erraapttihhneegrr sttuhhpee pssowwrtee eeitpp iirnneggce ssivuueppdpp ooarrmtt oiittn rrgee ccceeoiinvvteeeddm aapmmorooannrggy ccoonntteemmppoorraarryy
physicians whopp hhreyycssoiiccmiiaamnnsse wnwdhheoodr erietc ocaomsm mam ernoendudetidendeit ifato soaasd r aoa unrtodiun etevinfeoeno fdfoooarnd td haeenv dsei ncekvf.oe rTn thhfioser s ntiuchkter. isTtiihcokins.a nTl/uhmtirsei tdnioiucnatarli lt/iomneadl/icmaeldviiecawl
view is embeddviseideew min bi steh deemd cebodemdinpdotehsdei tiicnoo ntmhs epo ocf osoimtthiopenors smiotefiodonitehsv eoarfl mo ptehhdyeirse imvciaaeldnpsihe ovyfsa Silc ppiaahnnysissoihcf idaSnepssac noeifns Sht.p dMaenasicismehn odtn.eiMsdceaesinm t.o Mniadiemso(Snpidaeins
(Spain and Egy(aSnppdta 1iEn1g 3ya8pn–td112 10E34g8)y –pr1et2 c0o141m)3mr8e–ec1on2md0e4md) erkneidcdoe’msd mkmiedena’sdt meidne askteidivne’srs aemlv eeorafa t lhioinsf hsmeisvedemriaceald li ocwfa lohwrikso srm.k Isen.d Iihncaihsl iswcoormksp. oIsni tihoins
composition “A“cAopmphhoporoirssimistmiso snoo f“f AMMpoohsseoessr””is hmhees w worfir tiMetes:so:“s eT“shT”eh ehc hec ohwicoeriicstteesmst: em“aTtehoaert i gocihrniogaiticinenasgtti fnmrgoe mfartfo omour rigfloienugargt eilndegga gnferidmo mal sfoisupr olrekgagnedd
animals is porka nainmda tlhs ei sc ploosreks ta tnod i tt hise kcildos’se smt etoa ti”t (iMs kaiidm’so nmideaest” 1 (9M61a,i mp.o 2n3i0d)e. sH 1e9 6w1,r ipte. s2 3si0m). iHlarel yw rites similarly
further on: “Amfuorntgh etrh eo nm: e“aAt mofo anlgl ftohuer m leegagt eodf aanlli fmoualrs l kegidg’esd m aenaitm isa lusn kiiqdu’se mase iat ti sis t huen icqhuoei caess tit” i(ss tehee choicest” (see
Maimonides 19M61a, ipm. o2n3i9d; easn 1d9 c6o1m, pp. a2r3e9 t;o a nMda cimomonpiadrees t 1o9 M65a, ipmpo. n1i4d7e, s1 14996).5 , pp. 147, 149).
ʾAbū l-Walīd MʾAubḥūam l-mWaadlī dIb Mn uʾAḥḥammmada dIb Inb nR uʾAshḥdm (aAdv Iebrnro Resu, sChódr d(Aovbear 1ro1e9s8,– C11ó2r6d)o cblaa i1m1s9 8t–h1a1t 26) claims that
kid’s meat is prekfiedr’as bmlee taot ilsa mprbe fbeercaabules eto it l iasm a bb ebtetcearu psreo idt uisc aer b oeft tkeirm porso, id.eu.,c deri goefs ktiimveo sju, ii.cee.,s d (Iigbens Rtiuvseh judi ces (Ibn Rushd
1987, p. 227). In1 a9d8d7i,t pio. n22, R7)a. bInb ia Nddatihtiaonn ,b Renab Yboi eNl aFtahlaaqnu beerna Ynooetel dF ahliasq pureerfae rneontceed f hoirs k pidre’sfe mreenacte: “ fKori dk’isd ’s meat: “Kid’s
meat is moist anmde aatv iesr amgoei sint atenmd paevrearmageen itn a tse imt hpaesr anmeiethnet ra sth iet hdarsy nneesitsh oefr tthhee [d=rmyanteusrse o] fg tohaet [n=omr atthuer e] goat nor the
considerable phcloengsmid eorfa tbhlee lpahmlebg [m… o] fT thhee mlaemabt o[…f th] eT hyeo umnega tg ooaf tt,h we hyiocuhn igs tghoea kt,i dw, hiisc hav iesr tahgee k[=idin, is average [=in
temperament] atnedm ipt eisr athmee cnht]o aicnedst i ot fis a tlhl efo cuhro-liecgesgte odf aanlli mfoaulrs-”l e(gAgmeda ra annimd aBlus”c h(Ammana r2 a0n04d, Bpupc. h12m0a, n1 3290)0.”4 , pp. 120, 139).”
In another placIen Faanlaoqthueerr ap lsapceea Fkas laoqf utheera i nspfeeraiokrsi toyf othf ela imnfbe,r iaonrdit yw orfi tleasm: “bL, aamndb w[…ri]t eiss : h“aLrammfubl [f…or] is harmful for
Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW R eligions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12 6 of 12
recommended that it be avoidedre ocro mthmate tnhde epdh tlhegamt it b bee m avoodiidfieedd obry t shkaet wtheer prohalesgtimng b, eo vmeond biafikeidn gb,y o srk ewer roasting, oven baking, or
cooking in vinegar or spices (Ibcno Zoukihnrg, 1in99 v2i,n pe.g 2a1r; oIbr nsp Kicheasl ṣ(Iūbnn 1 Z9u96h,r p, 1. 98942)., p. 21; Ibn Khalṣūn 1996, p. 84).
I have found no explicit recomIm heanvdea ftoiounnsd b nyo M euxpslliimcit prhecyosmicimanesn dtoa tcioomnsb binye Mkiuds’lsi mm epahty wsiictiha ns to combine kid’s meat with
milk, and there is even an imprmesislkio, na nthda tth keirde’ sis m eveaetn i sa nc oimnspidreesrseido nfi nthea etn koiudg’sh m weiatht oisu ct onneseiddienrged t of ine enough without needing to
balance it by cooking. In contrabsatl,a mnceed iiet vbayl ccouoliknianrgy. lIinte croantutrrae sitn, cmlueddeies vraelc icpuelsin tahrayt lcitoemrabtiunree lianmclbu des recipes that combine lamb
and milk products. For exampalne,d amn ialkn opnryomduocutss . AFnodr aelxuasmianp ler,e cainp ea nboonoky mfrooums Athned 1a3luthsi acne nrteucriyp e book from the 13th century
published by Candida Martinelpliu ibnlcilsuhdeeds bsye vCearanld riedcai pMesa rotfi nlaemllib i nwcliuthd mesi slke vperroadl urecctsip, seus cohf alasm a bd wishit h milk products, such as a dish
called Tharida (اديراث) that contacianlsle dla mThba, rsidpai n(aادcيhرا, ث)m tohiastt ccohneteasien, sa lnadm bbu, tstpeirn. aIcnh a, nmoothisetr crheeceipsee, tahned butter. In another recipe the
author suggests stuffing lamb witahu cthhoeer sseu agngdes btsla sctku fpfienpgp learm, cbin wniatmh cohne, eosnei oannsd, banladc ke gpgesp (pMera,r ctiinnnelalmi 2o0n12, o, nions, and eggs (Martinelli 2012,
pp. 43, 86), and some even recomppm. 4e3n,d 8e6d) ,a adnddi nsgo mmei lekv perno rdeuccotms tmo emnduettdo na dind icnegrt mainil kc iprcroudmuscttasn tcoe sm. utton in certain circumstances.
For example, the Persian physFiocira nex Mamupḥlaem, mthaed P iebrnsi aZna kpahryiysiycāia nal -MRāuzḥī’asm (mRhaadz eibs,n (8Z6a5k–a9r2iy5)y ā al-Rāzī’s (Rhazes, (865–925)
claimed that mutton is “hot” ancdla tihmuesd r ethcoamt mmuetntodne dis t h“hato tt”h oasned w thhuos n reeecdo mtom “ecnoodle”d t hthea bt othdoys ceo wokh oit need to “cool” the body cook it
in whey (matzal لصْ مَ ), sumac (Rhinu sw choreiya r(ima)a, taznald لpصْomمَ )e, gsuramnaact (eR sheuesd cso (raial-rRiaā)z, īa’ns d19 p8o4m, pe.g 1r2a5n;a atne dse seedes a (ta l-Rāzī’s 1984, p. 125; and see at
length (Nikaein et al. 2012)). Helenncget, hth (eN nikuateriitnio ent aall/.m 2e0d1i2c)a).l Houetnloceo,k t heex pnruetsrsietido nbayl /Imbne dEizcraal owuatslo nookt expressed by Ibn Ezra was not
necessarily accepted by everyonnee acnesds athrielrye a wcceerpet oetdh bery oepvienriyoonnse. Iatn isd q tuhietree p woessreib oleth tehra ot psoinmioen dsi.d I tn ios tq uite possible that some did not
strictly adhere to these views, i.set.r, itchtleyr ea dwhaesr ea tdoi stchreespea vniceyw bse, tiw.ee.,e tnh ethree owreatsi caa dl ihsecareltpha dnicrye cbteivtwese aenn dth eoretical health directives and
actual practice. actual practice.
3.3. Kid’s Meat is Preferable to Lam3.b3 .a Ks iIdt ’Iss MHeeaatl tihsi ePrr eferable to Lamb as It Is Healthier
Ibn Ezra further contends that Icbonm Ebzirnai nfgu rmthielkr caonndt eknidds’s tmhaeta ct,o rmabthinerin tgh amni ltkh ea nmde akti do’fs omtheeart , rather than the meat of other
farm animals, is associated withf atrhme paonsimitiavles ,q ius aalsistioecsi aotfe tdh iws imthe atht:e positive qualities of this meat:
And do not be surprised that pAenodp lde oi nn otht ebsee spularpcersis eadre thnaott pacecoupslteo imn etdh e[sseh opulaldc ebs ea: raer en ot accustomed [should be: are
accustomed] to eating the meata cocfu ysotoumnged g]o taot se.a Btiencga uthsee amlle taht eo pf hyyosuinciga ngso aatdsm. Bite cthauats en oal l the physicians admit that no
meat equals it, and they even pmeremaitt eiqt ufoarl st hite, asincdk .t hIte iys eavlseon e paeternm iint iSt pfoarin t haen dsi cAkf. rIitc ais aanlsdo eaten in Spain and Africa and
Eretz Israel, and Persia, and BabEyrleotnz .I Tsrhaiesl w, aansd a Plseor sthiae, acunsdt oBmab oyfl othne. Tahnicsi ewnatss, a“ltswo oth ceh ocuicset om of the ancients, “two choice
young goats” (Genesis 27: 9), “ywoeu pnrge pgoaraets a” y(Gouennegs giso 2a7t :f o9)r, y“owue” p(Jruepdagrees a1 3y: o1u5n),g a gnoda tth feo r you” (Judges 13: 15), and the
priest would eat one male goat pforrie as ts wino ouflfder einagt o(Lnee vmitaicleu sg o6:a 1t 9fo; r2 3a: s1i9n– o2f0f)e. ring (Leviticus 6: 19; 23: 19–20).
Ibn Ezra projects from the realiItbyn o Ef zhrias tpimroeje tcots b firbolmica tlh teim reeasl.i tHye o sfa hyiss tthimate i nto e bxitbelnicsaivl et ipmaersts. Hofe tshaey s that in extensive parts of the
Muslim world kid’s meat is preMfeurrselidm o wveorr oldth keird t’sy pmeesa ot fi sm peraetf ebrerceadu soev eitr ios thheearl tthypy easn odf cmheoaict eb. eIcbanu se it is healthy and choice. Ibn
Ezra does not state the nature anEdzr qau daolietsie nso otf s gtaotaet tmheil kn aatsu pree racnediv qeuda bliyti ceos notfe gmopaot rmarilyk pahs ypseicrciaenivse ads by contemporary physicians as
he does with regard to the valhuee doofe ks idw’ist hm reeagt.a rIdn taon yth cea svea,l ufreo mof bkiibdl’isc aml etiamt. eIsn gaonayt’ sc amseil, kf rwomas biblical times goat’s milk was
considered a food with positivec oqnusailditeireesd ( Bao fooko do fw Pirthov peorbsist i2v7e: q2u7)a.l iTtiheiss (mBoilokk w oaf sP arlosvoe prbres f2e7rr: e2d7 )i.n T his milk was also preferred in
the classical era because it was cthoen scildaesrseicda le earsaie br etcoa duisgee istt w(Palsin ciounss 1id93e8re, dB oeoaksi eXrX tVo IdIIi,g cehsta p(P. l3in3;i u s 1938, Book XXVIII, chap. 33;
Preuss 1994, p. 561) and mediPerveauls sp h1y9s9i4c,i apn.s 5a6s1 )w aenlld inmdeidcaietevda l itpsh myseicdiiacnasl baes nwefeitlls i(nAdmicaart eadn dit s medical benefits (Amar and
Buchman 2004, p. 126). Buchman 2004, p. 126).
The basis of the outlook presenTtehde bbyas Iibs no fE tzhrea oount ltohoek q puraelsiteyn toefd k bidy’ sI bmne Eatz rias noont tah en oqrumal itthya ot f kid’s meat is not a norm that
developed among the masses, dbeuvte lroaptheedr athmeo nswg etehpei nmga ssusepsp, obrut ti tr artehceeriv tehde asmwoeenpgi ncgo nstuepmppoorrta irty r eceived among contemporary
physicians who recommended piht yassi cai arnosu twinheo f oreocdo manmde envdeend fiot ra tsh ae rsoicukt.i nTeh ifso ondu tarnitdio nevael/nm feodri ctahle sick. This nutritional/medical
view is embedded in the compovsiietiwon iss oemf obtehderd emde idni ethvae lc pohmypsiocsiiatniosn osf oSfp oatnhiesrh m deesdcieenvta.l M phayimsiocinaindse so f Spanish descent. Maimonides
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(Spain and Egypt 1138–1204) (rSepcoaminm aenndd eEdg ykpidt ’1s1 m38e–a1t2 0in4) sreevceormalm oefn hdiesd mkeidd’isc aml ewaot rkins . sIenv ehriasl of his medical works. In his
composition “Aphorisms of Mcoosmesp”o shieti ownr i“teAsp: h“oTrhisem csh ooifc eMsto msees”a t hoer iwgirniatetisn: g“ Tfrhoem c hfooiucre slte gmgeeadt originating from four legged
tahneimclaolsse sist tpooirtki saknidd ’tshme ecalot”se(sMta antoiimm itoa nilssi dkiesi sdp1’os9 r6mk1 e,aapnt.d”2 (3tMh0e)a. icHmloeoswensirdti teteoss 1ist9i mi6s1 i,kl apird.l ’y2s 3fmu0)re.t ahHte”er (owMnr:aii“tmeAso msniomidnieglsat rh1l9ye6 1, p. 230). He writes similarly
mfuerathteorf oanll:f “oAurmleogngge tdhea nmimeaatl sokff uiadlrl’t shfomeure roa lnte:ig s“gAuendmi qaounneigma tashliest mkisiedtah’ste omcfh eaoalitlc fiesos utu”rn (liseqeguegeMe adsa aiimtn iiosm ntahidlese cskhi1do9i’6sc1 em,spte”.a (2ts 3ies9e ;u nique as it is the choicest” (see
aMnadimcoomnpidaerse 1to96M1,a pim. 2o3n9i;d aensd1 9coM65ma,pipmapro.en1 ti4od7 eM,s1 a41i99m)6.1o,n pid. 2es3 91;9 a6n5d, p cpo.m 1p47a,r e1 4t9o) M. aimonides 1965, pp. 147, 149).
ʾAAbbuū¯ ll--WWaall¯ıīdd MMuuhḥ.aammmmaadd IIbbnn ʾʾAAAhbḥ.mūm aal-ddW IIabblnnīd RR Muussuhhḥdda m((AAmvveaerdrrr ooIbeesns,, ʾCCAóóḥrrmddooabbdaa I 1b111n99 8R8––u11s11h22d66 ))( Accllvaaieimmrrsso etthsh,aa Ctt órdoba 1198–1126) claims that
kkiidd’’ss mmeeaatt isi sprperfeerfearbaleb lteo ltaomlba mbkeibdc’asbu emsceea iautt si ises a pi btreeitfsteerara bpblreeot tdtoeu rlcaepmrr boo fdb kueicmcaeourss,o ei.f eit.k ,i isdm aigo bse,esttiti.evere. ,p jurdoiicdgeeuss c(teIibvr neo fR jkuuiimscheodss, i.e., digestive juices (Ibn Rushd
(1I9b8n7R, pu.s 2h2d7)e.t Inal a.d19d8it7i,opn., R2a2b7b).i N1In9a8at7hd,a dpni. t 2bio2e7nn), .Y RIonae bal dbFidalNiatiqaoutnhe,a rRnaa nbbobetnie NdY aohteihsla pFnra eblafeeqnru eYenorcaeel nfFooartl keadqiduh’esi rsmap enraoettf:e e“drKe hindics’e sp reference for kid’s meat: “Kid’s
fmoreakti dis’ smmoiesat ta:n“dK aivde’sramgee aint itsemmmpeoeaisrtt aisma nmednotia savts ea irnta dhg aeasvi nneretaietghmee prin et hrtaeemm deprynentraeamssse iotnfth taahsse i n[t= ehmiathsa etnurertiethh]e egrdo atrhyt enn eodsrrs ythnoeef ss of the [=mature] goat nor the
tchoens[i=dmeraatbulree ]phgloeagtmn oorf tthhee lcaomncbsoi nd[…seird]a ebTrlahebepl emh pleehagtl meogfm othf oetfh yteohulea nmlagmb gbo[ a.[t…., .w]] hTTihchehe mimse teahate to kof iftdht,eh i esy oayuvoenurgna gggeog a[o=ta,i ntw, hich is the kid, is average [=in
wtehmicpheriasmtehnet]k aindd, iist ias vtheera cgheoi[c=etisentm otpfe emarlalp mfeoreuanrm-tl]e eagnngtde] diat naisndR itmehiltiega iilcosshn”sto h(2iAc0e1em8sc,t ha 9oo,r f xia caFnelOlds Rft oB PouuEfrcE-halReml lgRagEfnoVed uI2E r0aW-0nl e4i mg, pgapelsd. ”1 2a(A0n,i mm13aa9rl) sa.””n d Buchman 2004, pp. 120, 139).” 7 of 12
(IAn manaorthanerd pBlaucceh Fmaalanqu20e0ra4 ,sppepIa.nk s1a 2no0of ,tthh1ee3r 9 i)pn.”lfaecrIineo Fraiantyloa tqohufe elraramp lsbap,c eaeankFdsa lwoafqr itutheeesr :a in“sLfpearemiaokbris t[y…o fo] fti hsla ehmainbrmf, earfnuiodlr fiwotyrr ites: “Lamb […] is harmful for
of lamb, and writes: “Lamb [ ... ] is harmful for ththoosesew witihtha alblbaalglgaamm [[iinn AArraabbiicc:: مغلبلا == pphhlleeggmm,, usually white, which is cold and moist] and is more

usually white, which is cold and moist] and is morseuistuabitlaeb floer ftohrotsheo wseithw ait hhoat hteomtpteemrapmeeranmt aenndt the gaunt [=because it is cold it is suitable for those
andthegaunt[=becauseitiscolditissuitableforthwoisteh wa icthonatrcaornyt rtaermypteermampeernatm aenndt nanotd fnoor tthfoorse with the same temperament]. And in general, the
thosewiththesametemperament]. Andingeneral,pthheyspichiyasnisc iaagnrseaeg trheaet tihta its ita ishaarhmafruml ffuolofdo”o d(A”mar and Buchman 2004, p. 127. On the differences
(AmarandBuchman2004,p. 127. Onthedifferencesbbeettwweeeenn kkiidd aanndd llaammbb aaccccoorrddininggt otot htheed doocctrtrininee of temperaments, see also Mayer-Chissick 2011,
oftemperaments,seealsoMayer-Chissick2011,pp. 16p4p–. 6196)4.–69).
IbnEzracitesseveralversesasproofthatinbiblicaltimIbens Epzeroap clietepsr esefevrerreadl tvheersmese aats opfrokoidf tghoaatt isn biblical times people preferred the meat of kid goats
tothatofotherfarmanimals,ascustomaryinhisowtno ttihmate .oRf oebtheecrc afacromo kaendimyaolusn, gasg couasttsofmorarIysa ianc his own time. Rebecca cooked young goats for Isaac
(Genesis27: 9),Manoach’swifesuggeststotheangel(tGheantesshies c2o7o: k9)h, Mimanaoyaocuhn’sg wgoifaet s(uJugdgegsetss 1t3o: 1th5e), angel that she cook him a young goat (Judges 13:15),
andtheprieststooateakidgoatasasinofferingintheantadb tehren apcrliees(Ltse tvoioti cautes a6 :k1id9; g2o3a:t1 a9s– a20 s)i.nN oofftearbilnyg, in the tabernacle (Leviticus 6: 19; 23: 19–20). Notably,
thekidgoatisnotspecificallycharacteristicofthepritehsets k’ifdo ogdoaatn ids nthoits sipsecceirftiacainlllyy cnhoatriancdteicraistteidc obfy the priests’ food and this is certainly not indicated by
the sin offering. In the same way, other types of animals were also mentioned as offerings and were
thesinoffering. Inthesameway,othertypesofanimalswerealsomentionedasofferingsandwere
eaten by the priests. The verses also seem to indicate lay consumption of other farm animals, such as
eatenbythepriests. Theversesalsoseemtoindicatelayconsumptionofotherfarmanimals,suchas
the“calf”(benbakar,Genesis18: 7)or“fattenedcalf”(egthelem “acrablef”k 1(bSeanm buakealr2, 8G:e2n4)e,shiso w18e: v7e)r ohre “mfaattyennoedt calf” (egel marbek 1 Samuel 28: 24), however he may
not see these as proof because they speak of hospitality situations that do not indicate a routine
seetheseasproofbecausetheyspeakofhospitalitysituationsthatdonotindicatearoutinecustom.
custom. Moreover, even the verses that refer to ritual settings (Leviticus 6: 19; 23: 19–20) are no proof,
Moreover,eventheversesthatrefertoritualsettings(Leviticus6: 19;23: 19–20)arenoproof,asthe
as the Israelite rituals included a variety of farm animals.
Israeliteritualsincludedavarietyoffarmanimals.
It is to be assumed that kid goats were suitable for slaughtering and eating in the home and with
Itistobeassumedthatkidgoatsweresuitableforslaughteringandeatinginthehomeandwith
the family for two reasons: kid’s meat is soft and due to the fairly small size of the animal it does not
thefamilyfortworeasons: kid’smeatissoftandduetothefairlysmallsizeoftheanimalitdoes
require lengthy preservation in the absence of refrigeration. When slaughtering a kid goat for one’s
notrequirelengthypreservationintheabsenceofrefrigeration. Whenslaughteringakidgoatfor
family no pieces of meat are left over, which might rot. The impression is that Ibn Ezra uses the
one’sfamilynopiecesofmeatareleftover,whichmightrot. TheimpressionisthatIbnEzrausesthe
nutritional/medical attitude to kid’s meat in his own time to learn about biblical times, although in
nutritional/medicalattitudetokid’smeatinhisowntimetolearnaboutbiblicaltimes,althoughin
practice the ancients might have preferred this meat for other reasons.
practicetheancientsmighthavepreferredthismeatforotherreasons.
3.4. Kid’sMeatIsParticularlyWellSuitedforCookingin3It.s4.M Koidth’se rM’seMati lIks Particularly Well Suited for Cooking in Its Mother’s Milk
IbnEzrafurtherexplainswhytheTorahmentionedcoIbonk iEnzgraa fkuidrthgeora etxinpliatsinms owthhyer t’hsem Tiolkraahn dmentioned cooking a kid goat in its mother’s milk and
notinmilkingeneral. Hesaysthatitisrecommendendotto inco mokilka kinid gegnoeartaslp. eHceifi scaaylsly thinati tist mis orethcoerm’smended to cook a kid goat specifically in its mother’s
milkbecausethecombinationofthetwomayprodumceilka bmeocraeusceh othicee ccoumlibnianraytiroens uolft tthhea tnwcoo omkaiyn gproduce a more choice culinary result than cooking in
inthemilkofothergoats,andcertainlyofotherfarmthaen mimilakl so.fH otehwerr gitoeas:ts“, Aanndd ctehretaIisnhlmy oafe loitthesert ofaorm animals. He writes: “And the Ishmaelites too agree
agreethatifthekidiscookedinitsmother’smilk,whtihchatc oifm these fkroidm isth ceosoakmede sionu irtcse m,thotehneirt’sis mmiolkr,e which comes from the same source, then it is more
enjoyable,andtheScripturesspeakofthepresent.”Theenajossyuamblpe,t iaonndi sththea Stcthriepytuoruensg sopreapkro odfu tchtes tphraetsent.” The assumption is that the young or products
originatefromananimal(orhumanbeing)naturallybtheaatr osirmigiilnaartqe ufraolimtie asnt oanthimeiarls (oourr hceu.man being) naturally bear similar qualities to their source.
TheaffinitybetweenthequalitiesofthenewborntoitsTmheo tahfefrinpiatyrt ibcuetlwarelyena mthoen gquhaulmitiaens boefi nthgse, newborn to its mother particularly among human
amongotherthingsduetoconsumingitsmother’smilbke,iwnagss,e axmproenssge dotbhyerR tahbinbegns udBueeh taoy ceobnesnumAsinhger its mother’s milk, was expressed by Rabbenu Behaye
IbnHaliwa(Spain1250–1340). Hewrites: “Asthefetbuesni sAfoshrmere Idbnfr Homalitwhea m(Sepnasitnr u1a2t5i0o–n1b34lo0o).d Haen dwrites: “As the fetus is formed from the menstruation
growsinitsmother’sstomachforasetamountoftimbleo,oadn adnadf tgerroiwtiss ibno irtsn manodtheenr’tse rsstotmheacwho froldr ait set amount of time, and after it is born and enters the
nursesfromitsmother’sbreasts,soititsnatureisnecwesosraldri liyt nliunrkseesd fwroimth itths emmotohtehre’rs ’bsrneaatsutsr,e smo iotr iets nature is necessarily linked with the mother’s nature
thanwiththefather’s”(Behaye1994,Leviticus24: 11).mMoorere othvaenr, twwiothp rtohdeu fcattshtehra’st”a r(eBaefhfialiyaete d19w94it,h Leviticus 24: 11). Moreover, two products that are
asharedsourcebearitsqualitiesandthusmightmixwaefflill,iianteodu wrciathse at hsheamreeda tsoofutrhcee kbiedarg iotast qaunadlitthiees and thus might mix well, in our case the meat of the
milkoriginatingfromitsmother. kid goat and the milk originating from its mother.
Ibn Ezra adds that understanding the verse “Do not cook a young goat (gedi) in its mother’s
milk” (Exodus 23: 19) as indicating specifically a kid goat is justified by the Arabic. He objects to the
famous Medieval commentator of the Bible, Rabbi Shlomo Yitzchaki’s (Rashi, North France 1040–1105),
understanding that the word gedi is a collective noun designating young individuals of all pure
domestic animals (goats, sheep, cows). Rashi’s interpretation is based on the Mishna and Talmud1 in

1 The Mishna (‘repeated study’) was redacted by R. Judah the Prince at the end of the second century CE. The
Mishna is the first major written redaction of the Jewish oral traditions and laws. The Talmud (also Gemara,
means ‘study’ or ‘learning’) is a collection of commentaries on and elaborations of the Mishnah and certain
auxiliary materials. The term ‘Talmud’ refers to the Jerusalem Talmud (Talmud Yerushalmi) which was
compiled in the Land of Israel (c. 400 CE), and the collection known as the Babylonian Talmud (Talmud
Bavli), compiled by the scholars of Babylonia (c. 500 CE).
Religions2018,9,174 8of12
Ibn Ezra adds that understanding the verse “Do not cook a young goat (gedi) in its mother’s
milk”(Exodus23: 19)asindicatingspecificallyakidgoatisjustifiedbytheArabic. Heobjectstothe
famousMedievalcommentatoroftheBible,RabbiShlomoYitzchaki’s(Rashi,NorthFrance1040–1105),
understanding that the word gedi is a collective noun designating young individuals of all pure
ReRRdRlieeogellliiimRiRggoRgniieeiooeRloelsninli ngiges2ssglsiit 0 ioio 22gio21nn00cin08sos11s1 , na28 8 2892s0,,n0, , 0 91 2919xi1,80,8m, 8 x,x1F,x , 9 8 9O FFa9F,,, ,O ORlx9O xsx , RRF P RFxF( OEO PP gOPFEREERoOERREE EaP PR PRRRREtE E PsE ERRERE,EVRREEREsE IVV RVh RERRIIEWIEe EEEREVVeWWVWE pII VIEE E , WWI WEc oW w s). Rashi’sinterpretationisbasedontheMishnaandTa8lm 8o88 f oou o1ff8f8 2 d8 11 1 o o2218o2ff f o1 11f22 2 1 2
BBaiBnvaalvBvi lalHii v HHuliuluiHnllii nun1 l1 1i1n311a331 ata1h t3tahhataa tttthh ttaehht emet mhmeeaeetmaa ott e foo aafft n aaoynnf yypa punpuryuerrp eaeu n aarinnemiimamanlaa imlml mmuauslutsm sntt u onnstoo tbtt n ebb oecet o ccboooekooekckdoeed odink ii nenmd mmiilnkiill kk(mo ((fiool afkf apa( o pupfuruaerr eape n auainrnmeiimmaalana)l,il )m)n,, onnatolo )tt,
onoBnolnoanyvltBBl yBytloaahi Ba tn vvtHehvahlll lvyeiimeui lH H mtHlimeih Hnuuaeuee ltla1ulai imiontn1tln if o 3eon1 1 1aafaf11 1 1 ta3t3ga31h oaa oga3ga f aot taotthahta h a.ttaa tghhat.tt. otea t t atthhmh ttee.hee m meam tmee eoaaaefttt a ao ootnf ffo ya aaf nn pnayyuny p ryppe uupu arrureneer ia aemann naaiinimmlm immaaallul a m mmls tmuu unssusottt stn nnt b oonoettto b bcbtoe eeb o c ceckoo oceoooodkkko eeieknddde mdi iinnn ii lnm mmk m ii(illolkkikfl ( k((aoo o (ffpfo a auaf p rpape uupu arrureneer ia aemann naaiinimmlm)im,aa anlll)a)o),,l, t)n nn , oonottto t
onlooyoTnnn oThTtTllnhlyyehhyhle ee tyTte th hm hTaTTteelheaae am mlmelamlmmm utmee euoudaauaefdtd tdt ra a o oe rotr rf afeegfoe ca aaaoafahc c ac ggahehghto os.eoge ea assatostth t ta.t.t. h ih ths.ii isscs o ccconooncnnlccucllluusuissosiiionoon nnfr ffofrrromoommm th ttthehh eetew tttwwwo ooow wwworooodrrrddsd ss“s y “““yoyyouoouunungnng ggg goggaoootaaa”ttt ””(”g (((egggdeeeiddd iiiiz iiiizzmziiimmm) i)))n iii nnnth tttehhh eese t ssostttroooyrrr yyyo fooo fff
JuJJJuududdadhaaah hTha ha naanTeTTdnn dhhTThd deeaTThe la TTTaemTTm maaaTaaulmlamlmaammdrlramau u iurrnridd eu ndiaG id n rrncreeGe he raanGaeeeGccecnasehhesh centeienhehssessesiei s( ss tst3sith hi sh 8cst(i i: ohi3ss(s( 81n i3 cc3Rsc7:8coo 8 eo–cl:ln1n:u in2o g7c1cs0i1ncol–l7i)l7uunco2.u––slssn0T2 us22ii) i0ooh0s0f.o )1rinne)no.8oT. r ,nf fme Thf9rTr r,ooehmf ohxrtrmmemh oeeeFrrmen O e tet mtth hRt h iwmtoe emePhe n noE tteeetwwE tnw inwtisRtwoootoi moinR o o wowrwE nan dViwoo do ssIrir eiEr osdds“md Wrs yssmdspm a o“ “se “duayy acy“denoidooyfi eguueuosc nnpagunssgglpeongpl cyae gggegictfo coo”ogiiiafacf faoi(taitacgta”c”l”aealt y ( ydl(”l(logglig yy (eueioeg ddz ndfeoiiio i gd mf iifaizi z zg ) iiai aimmzoiym n iaoy)m)y) t uto ii,o)ihnnunn iuien gnn ttn tdhhs hggttieeg heco ogas sergstttayo tooiosot nataro,rro tgyytf,y,r o yoof ffo f 8 of 12
iniJtidnuhndiaddcJJJtiuauaicucJhitddaundai tnaatdaiaihohgnhnant gh gthdaah a ten ntahnarhTddtnada ap itd tmn TTl iT ai naanoaTac mm ertmoaoh stmaatiehahnrtrrraeh e rrpiiarGin n ntplpi a en lmGlcnGaGa eceeeceGseesnnen nisetsesteh ne it sstoasheih(iinst3ssasa i8mt tsa( (: (m 33 mn3e(818n83e:e7u:: 8tn n–in11:to12 ti7s7i7no10po–––7) n2n2ea.2– 0c0n a02aTi)) n)fi0.n.uh. ) e unTeT.uTd rsnhhnThepseegs heperrpemreceedeeeri cie fcemmiin(im fefyitmideeeioeenond nduegntt nte inig igoodtoegieinindsnod ( i ain yi min(i(s soysyi iau mosommdmu nuaemagnanal dd) gdgaasee tpden ah a eeinssnemsc pipipimsmmeafepeiclcaccea)eiial ifaflc)tfi)lihi niclc tfcytaehaiihanc l lelmlealogly y lymfml e i ysoaoeaoe nffa mafo in ynfanaaoi oi gn nrauyy egy ginoos oy gigu uisuomse n nu nmngmgogngeo r oo graeggragr teooel,og aa aottta,,, t,
gegiagnnneedendiniinrinenecaiwdrdarndlaa itiidilcacildc na ainaaaectgtdntaini in(nd ttndswihgg eng wa wei gttdtthhi hMideitaadnha ettei(t a sso ii (tinhne(tsn shie n en oeo oeeaeMt tr tohh Mh HMtpieehesrrulihriea s s plpnrhcpih lnelanplanasa aclc8a Hcat ee: ehHcsHsus4ea Bu lttsuttihhaa hnllmtinaavih anntt8dltea i : mm8 n tm8Hi4 :n:tm ee ie4u4anontn el nhntatiantiindne ioontao d inn1dTnnoi n1 a n aiaui3a lnnn nmtanna h t n suuttuehuhph nn deuneTeass ins ctTappcT pistlaefeamhdpeiclcelcmeeiimiusdiff cfmiciudi ieuegufedididededcseaid isdc ggdctigi e e o d(eoigdddsydnfeiiici ois d sa u((tcu(icyyhn yusu(nooesyoyssiguur suoospe inniuanno,uoggn nng1rnt i1e ga ah mat 3ntn ehanahaairinenimem–elmri)ri,bme m aeata1),l,hl .al )1a)1)1e lH3l t1t 1 )thmham3 h3ote–eaheauwe b – m–mesam)beb t.nme )ev)enHi.aa. nea eoHnnHrongat,ii woni nnobtinwshiggweeng e vm ec giieissevofs vo aire ommserm,cr k retm,oo, e o rrdroeee r i en milk (of a pure animal), not
thtgttehhhe eafnegga gt feefecaegoranntcnaen ceettlnethl rr tyraetaaahahrnlltayl a a d aoatolat nn nounaowddlnnndnyi ldg dlw ywywy e g owiyiy iddou(dooiseeaudneeu t g(nee(sn(ss sgegge(Mae see ogrege ieao MesMoMtah masMtiin tisssaessah hir hansa ennrHhntr aeiamenaoou m aHnHnmelH ileneHnuuyeudtn ln liuli8titointhini:lninno i oe 4n 88en 8nt m ::dhea: 8e 44d ne:4dei n da 4aa iBai nt n nnt niaih obdnd tndtefhl h de itieaBienhn n a iBig e Bn bntt oithhil Tbhdbaeteelahel te ane. lTeT mTn ao aaaTadntnulllmamd “dmdnly m uoniunucotodd oud ud“tiitdi cncy i“c“ s igo yddcycdu ouiiosdissunhssuccicsgnesuunuic egosgssusp sshn ssssii”eh iooshoteeinhncenoper ee n etp”trpthha he”c”teet, her e crrcer1eesrerea1er,,e, d te3a 1a1e1,aot 1t1se1–1eu 33sd3b1sbaa a d3o)d–t–.–auso bbobH–ub)a)u)b..tbos. bs) HHtw.H tts asoHoo eso aaww vtwsotshoe we eteitr ovvsov,e ee evrrre,,, r ,
thttutihhhsnie istduts thh fh uenatueerhednc n sf ftedefatad a tarfecchecsantrtrtta c sdta sttttthhtn ih aaotnaadnhanntgttdia dlo noyoti(in ngnt nnohyl lgnlg(yyoeyt l ( hu(y yytcytehno hoooy egucueuuo o ncnpgcunuoggolongupe u ag ggplgtpweo osogl laea woeaoat t wtrrasswosde ta raos aosmdrr rrraeegdseder em smgensmd T e gtimgeedieheenoinidnzeed ntitiint izii mTei oioiitozmdzainninoiiml eme simneindds de mi ui smtdi siih ndn emn meie n nt trn tehhtBeeh tintenaeoiihetbo ctnB iBeiBlhnooee iiBeeinbb ndbasdiellelbe ned ietdi ln hdna a ea iiin n ntsnnntahdhd nod tcte eh otdhn nn enT“Te oono y ocTottTto l orr“o “uo“taauyyr sry“ anomoimaoyo gu umumonoo nnsunr orofghgeengrrr e eos gtsetsei hhmi tmhpmtsieeihme ”meeeteee hppscespee.er””s. ps”Se . .t c cS”ae ScwSrr eetreceeeeee oerafaesae o t tfwftdfaeerooeo stsoorreser urd xd esededab xooxxdosmtauuaauo sm“mbmb pubayttpltbspsspoes ltltul:a aese aeoss :n:s:a tg tstoo o gt oo at” (gedi izim) in the story of
JuJJtJuhuduiddgdtsttehghg ghusteieiehis snssss6 i du u su:66 6 nenu:n:1:r dd 9nds111ee;t9de9 9arr;rI;e;ssn bs rtItIdItaiabsbbadtniniininad.dddd,ndg ...ii,1,d i,n n( n311tig1gn:gh33 3 ( g(e:1::( tt t 5h1hc(11h;t5oee5 5he; Iu ;; c ceb cIpoIoI iobcbbduluuoieiid.ppdd up,w .ll..p,l1ee,, eJo 5l 1u1w w1erw:55d 5 dwo:o1::oa s r;r1h ro 11ddgd;1 r;; ess ds1ad 11 Sg g nsig a eSe SSidegddmzadaae iiimim md mTui iizizzuae uuiiiiimlmmzseme e il1ml lm ai i 6is1s1r1s e : 6i 6m 6msnm:i2:: nt me0e2ie22 no)n0n00eG.ntt )nt))ii.Neei..o ot ondNinnNoNnoe eetioneosanoddtdietb ats atdi ail bhinnbynb (lie l 3,ytnl ty tyhh8T,Ih , ,tb:e eo IheII n brT1 bTbeTa n7n onoETo –mr rEzro2aEEaarroz0 zzma mar)rmrr . aea maodo o Ttrrdodidroeehmeeoroo est teeteeeii ri smmssstnem i . onm enenSemtsosooes e..t. oete ts S S Sn b.oofeoe eSotjbebebeieeroj jcjef f eeefnetooco c cxfr trtttro a oi e etsrtemt oxxo oxtea amh paxttmmtehmhlahae emeppde:p llepleee :l:: s e p: ecifically of a young goat,
rarJrrbuaaabbbdbJJiJbbugubnuiJiedidinundncsggiidg aiccece6legaasa s:slev l l 1 s66ivv6ve 9::i: i 6wi; ee1e1 :1ww I9w9 9b1t;; h; 9 i ttdItIa;hhIbhb b.taIa,iai ibddtttdt1 hi ..tt3d.,,tehh, h: .1 1 e,e1ep 133 3 15prp::p: 3o; rr11 r:1hoo Io555b1ihh;h;b; 5iii idIIibb;Ibbtb b.iiiIi,itiot tibiddiidin1nooio..5dd.,, nnn, i: .i 1n1 , 1cii 15i5cnna5n1;::lt c:c 5uc i11l1ln:l1udu u;;; g 1Sded d11 ;a1se te e m h1sSsStsS aha autatSttmehmhhm ea ieelenmmuu u mm1eemouie6llltl kie i:i hll11 ll k1kk e26a66 1r0 :n:aa: a6 ) pdn2n2.n:2 0l0d d0dN2am)) )0.c .mm. o mee) NN.tNsa eeae tNooaatboa httttolttoa aya afootbob t,baff a lfl mlbyIy laayball,,l l,e y nlllo lIIn ,I bobt obotEhIntnitnbthozeh h n rrneEeEeEa rr zdzr aEz rrdddonrzdaaaomoo r o u amedmdmden soosdoe eseeetnspseoisssttcoseet ii itccscnncan io onoafanoaittbnineton m jiidooteiomm mbab cbogltjajaaejsbee elldt,clcjss cosetitb,,t , c ( ubbttttybtooh uutouot e otttutt thh hnteeheg e a nimal) the meaning is more
acaraacacccobcccrrroorboaadarrribrbndbdiadnbbibbiiicignninibnnan gggitilinio c c cttvtaai ooaohclil l ea ihh hvvswlvii iiissuivsee e twuniuwuwhednnnw a tdteddtthh r heetetasarharhrtttsstasa et ttttnta tahah phdnntneerhedid don eppiipihgn nrnrprio goggbotrhhh ihottttieihhghhiibb boeeeTieiiibn tnt TtoTiiTi ioeortoooiorinnanrrnoarh aca an liilh h innhuu an icc udunsnculleludsesucsudeesld edudd wd dtetedeh hs sittstedhe h eh tts eteehhwe mh te eww(hewos i lemermoomokd errmr ii dd ialdlgMlkk nike ggl gdd ikaeeaseaidd nnd hnambiididn nd ebbb e adc eemmeam acc Hctmueaae aeoauuuasuaeetftslsta s i eeoaionetot lf fii foli i tt8 t sa afo a:ii il lssalstla4l l h aal opaolaoe ttpponrptohhh poodtoedeheppu prrorie uul un maddrdll l raaooatdeo rrhammrsmo n eaatameie innecnTmsssi ietitammatimisaiclcntclmaa ia i acaullmal u nn usunaudaieisnsimmsldmieeseicdm da,ad fa dlol b lsfafsfsirouo,,los, sr rtcbrb,b u uuubsttuts ito n there, 113a–b). However,
cocaccnoococsnnnaaouasscsccrumuacucdccommomopicrrnropptddpdigrttoiitd iiinnitnnoooiogg nnngna h tg tn taaooai odnnst n hoh dd hudp iihi ssn pprsp ied uurrsurfee enneeunffrdfrdeendserreretdreerrarrrdreeessnesddrt tddtoaasa ovtinononnavedvdvndgreeiied innrrotnrih gtgo tonghohe tt tgtteh tehhhhT h retfeeeeo hearrf rr TcTae Tf fatf raooaT aohmtrrrrrhro mamauma arhhahsa tan ae h auuonuindn mssniusi eiemmtlemsahdyddealae asdy ttll t.hlhswso hs.t.eeu.he o wnwerw dgwooo rgrgroddeodrd ad ggigt ee sbegdd deeaiii d cr bbbiaee eue bcmccesaaaeceuuua nissusttee eisi os iieitt nt a i iieti ssps d i aasoa i p pnpapu o opotplhppoaueurpu llBulaaaainrlrbra i aalrmaenn na aiianimmlmn iumdaaasll l an e uuuldo ssust eef es“doddeyr d ff ofoo oufrrro n rg sheep” creates doubts as to
concccIsooboucIInnInnobbmbssn nsnnuuEups mmEEzumEtrizzmzpopaprrrnt taaptacii i ool atoccacinnnllnoliaa amdn aaiiaimmn n msnpadd nsdrsts ehd ppttptfahh hrerprteaaera erfrtifttfeen ee eiirfird nnrnetrrr here ottetrdehhdhvde ee eeAd oo or AAv vArv otoaeehrrevrrtbraairahe sibb oobrco euiit t irtocchhlcnh a tf eelldhealnaarrarreeg nn n fmfrrfuaggag safrrua uturaammagmaarannegmg gi ada,meae enn wi,,na, nai iwwnimwmhglmsiih hmha.(aca itilhilchclsacss hh..heli. ss ici. is scso l cucocllplsoooelssse eete wo ttt oooot h rtttehhdh eeslea glllnaaeagnndniuggg iuauzugaiaameggg e eoei s foo o mftff h ttetehhhn eeeBt i BBioBbiinilbbbeell ldee(e o ((i(nnooo nn ntt hh ttteehhh eeTe ora more times. See for example:
afaaafffifffinfiiinnntiiyIittbt yyybn II ebbI bbbEbteeInenwnbzttt wwrn wEeEEae zezee Eznecrererzala nnanaHr caic HHcmHell laacbaeeesiliribmabm bmetirrrhmwsseees a ww wtt stthha h t inaaaanhaattdnntn a tidi dtdinhnA n i e AAn Artt thhaA hrrrJtbeeaahuear ibb abAeAcdAiib icgcrAicrri naae caiirib nsnb nbaIl ii ab ibc6cIIcInnbb :ib l lcgln naa1n aEunln 9 naEEzaEgg;ng rzzguzuIaugrrebraa aauaa,cigg dga owcceeceg.omo,,,oh, emm wwm1miw, c3mmwhhmheh: ii neheicc1eicstnnhhi5nhac tt ;ctrh i aaiailsysIr sror b i yy ccyssscil le de lososcso e.eelstse,so o eeeeeGe1s tGtGet5eGthoo o:neet e e ott1nen tnhhl hs;eeat eeeihess1nss ii l le igsslaa3sS a unl n033ana3a:gg00mn g0gu3::u:ug u e7a3a33ua ;eg7g7o 7galL;e;ef; eg L1eLL toeoov6hee fef:foiv ev vt ttf 2tiiihhiB thctt0tieieuiihecc)c b .us BueBu Bl sNeisi1sBib b b11(1oi1llo:lbe1e1t 1en a1l ::: ( e( b(3 o1o11 to)l(3hnn33y,no ) e) ),,n tt,, th h Ihtbeehe n e Ezra does not object to the
gegaggdefeeifddd iaasiiani fef ssfafifsrfeteiiefivnynrrfnreiv viivnitbtsteeyyei yesstt s to y bb wttbt ooeeodebet t tdedwewdewsteeneweiesseg seeiiHeienggnngneanne nn HHtbaaHae trtHete eeeeoebb wbe noororrblenne neyrawwllwle yynyaw d aaaayaa n n onyayAyddunodoor rundu aAuAaAgnb nnbrAr riggagagbca rbb oiggbagniiianooibccoicta ca ia, iIcia ttintnbw, ,nl, i n wwn wIhvII bb bihEihhIlnennbeiiziwl l ln reeEEteEa h z zttt Eztehhhrcrhrz aaeoeayaer mt oyacyc ycout ooomoohcmmunumuoeegnnmn mmnmp gggotmeer ae fooonon rneoffhftyt nt taoaoioa hbtrrtstrtayehyheihyrtr ee eie y ssor drsree G en sdodeedeee m ooo iGeGnnGmmm eeeceGesseelnnetnuiessisesentectdt ssii si3eciceaiciss0s ssn aa ai: 33 sinnt3nm3 0h0ii03i7m:m:em: a 0; 3 3 l:3aamLas 777l3l le;;sshsi; 7v lLL ahh;kLhi eveata Leaivavevvvcveni ieueivdtettd iis idiicdcdtcf uuiifm1iuicffefss1ffusfr ee e:e e11 sarr1r1n 11eet1e13 :t:nnn: 1o ) 11tt,:1tf 33 31a)))3,,l, l) ,o ther domestic animals, but
ddgeddseeeedissgggsigii ieenggseggdddeanneniirit d aas asivsittoeet ieiesirnrooorsevvsnnv nrte,essevo sssa,,se, nd aat tsatoodnneo nt sdd d oddtdih ege dttetsshihnshesiiiiaigg sissgistinsn eng ii iassa esnao ttv eetaeeeneivv t vdlo oeiiyoidden nd nonaeellenlyy ntnyyn l tfta yaotar ff auofy yarryrcomnoo oocoymmguuomuo t nnrgunh tdtggtohneghhi a eng gegwegt o go w,wogw oa awaotortotoota,d,hrr, rtw dwhdsiwd,l sisewohhssh o f ioitouhi llhflofeefien eo tl ot otedh tthhtyth hehetheeoherere eu sy ryermyrtn o oma moymeguunuoed enndeounddigdgifengini evioeo goegovavtf fv fho al tao oa hfolegltl t rtego hrhggh artdereTrheamarroaorme mmmd dmrrdam oomdeomahmmsmoara atuirmerieareicsissainas eeattantsniisdnincc stcsa s iita aacsm aahann snsawesaii wni m mwlwmwesielma eaoleahl:lllllrl slasa:ls:d :l vh h sh eg aaha evvdvadeeievif d fdbede ieidirffcffefifeaefnefrurrteee sernnenett nti tt is a popular animal used for
desdddiegedessnseiiaiggsgtinningoaanantttaiisiooto,inn noassnns,,, sd aaa,n n ntahddndi d tstthh hitiishiss s e i iisivsss ii eesdevv veeiinivdddtiee defcnnnreottont n ffmtfrrs roofu ortmmmmohme p tt thhwt htieeoheo wnwerw d woaoosnrrr oddoddrsfs ds p o oosortf fefho ooffoeet trtohrhh rtmeeheerrrdee mmrd mo imeeveeddvedeiiradiee eloviv vegtaaavhrlll aa e gggmlrr r rgfaamaarmmmraammmmrmi maaaaanrrnraiisiiaaram ninanasssans lw aassass .sae wwlswl :wee ellllell::l: l:
1.11 1... AAAcAccccocccrooodrrrdiddniiignnn gggto ttt otooh tttehhh eJeee JJJweeewwwisihiisss hhhg r gggarrrmaaammmmmmmaraaairIarribiinaaan nnna En aaadznnnrd ddlae llxlceeeilxxcxaioiiicccmgooorgsgga rrrtpaaahphppaehhhtr eeei rJnrru JJJtuduuhdaddeha aaA hhhib r iiinbabbb nnKni KcuKK ulruuaarrnriaasagihiisuss hh(haT (g((TiTTeai,iira aaewrrrteee,h tttN,i,, c NNNohro ootirhsrrtt t hchhAl AoAAfrsfiffercrri aiictcco,a aa ,,,t he language of the Bible (on the
1. 111ʿn..a. 1iʿnAn ʿnnnna.aaii zincitnnnnnnh AncAnz(Anttzztot sh ihih chAni(ccnne((crn s cce ssidctccetecccontoeehnheeo hiceeeareetrn tnn ro nhn dcdulc adcgtatasrete tiiurlueodu lcilnunnsntysnsnrre ooirgrgtooIt)yyngntyuuyb , u tI ))t gtItI)hrn)tibr,,ooubbr,n o, yy e tniiy nnirKti tnon)) ntn hA)yhJ,, hK , u KeK t)e AAeiiArheAiw,nurn uu naJ Jarrei Jr rerebrin raaAAei aaasAJwaawsibb webhicbrhAirisriiwsis aiia icc ihasgtschhcr1sbb hhhb i artth9 1itsiteh1h1a i bchc8hgh g9c 9g9me e iag4ewr 8e rttc88 r gtha feh,a4ww mha4 4wfowdrtmpmee,im,he,a rioon a p.o op pmdwem wsmrriwrm2r.rt e.d.d i d4w doymfo2aaar2o2a o5 r4v nrrffr44rofrfbard)ooidi5eo doi55a. ararerar ) sgr))drn infn.f t n.f. ae oggowt g ogddaon afeerraeeroi nedd n d lnd daggreieiidgdiis nde een xeiig d idisdssl ldig ssleeieic iHei a d gggxlxo ggiixdeiisaasnieiaga siicx cdd ibd c dagrgsooigii(oiartica ag gيaegegpod((d((dr rawييدirgiيoْhaai d جaَ ددrnْeْp (pد(iْp)ج(جaaََي جيrlَh,يhyph(n) )) )Jددaeْ,ي,e,ْد ,uheْd ج جَaَ rnrجaaaَrدaeْd ) )ndnJnج )JyAَ,nr,Juau, dudd )o aadJhfrad,duud no na fn ffaaaifdnrodbaoodbondhh hirgrar anrdc f f ih i f aoaao ibgb ayoKbi f rrinno nyoryoynb yu aa ao urooaKn KoIrKt ubunu aya,y uuuyK unnignnw oonsroyrur ggguuahagguhEoar inin gouigignsza(sgslgTghaohroioneghos a ti a aa ggg(ah a(t g(tTtt(hT octroT gog( (eio(e(iaa(Tieagaaggot gamtdtyr,eirteea er ai ed(eddN(otd em(ggrtiti iiguti,ze (,eoe , i eieigindNt idNzzzrdNmzn,eiiigiti ii dNm ommoht m)ioi aiiz—orzr z )r))oArti)tiif———timhm—yzhr mhgofti r)ma)Ah Agggts)Ag—i—dh—eaaac a)fAfiddfdeea—rrd ggrig irii,ifiia c aGc r acgddadaidaaeci,io,i, d an mi,e seisst i3c0 a: n3i7m; aLlesv hiativceu sd i1f1fe: r1e3n)t,
2.222 2.... 222Tc... o 2TcʿTch TcTca.nooehoh ohnhtnn neʿTcenʿTcezeeʿTcattaAo otam th hoeenʿTcn(heennAnAAasmmeArneozmzmheptzneat nrtr e rere (pope(bezaaAp(ApasmatsmA srmoiobebeabe(obocareArsmrrripeilperi aiarperccseaaacc a roaybowb a oaperorb aarrr rilyyilw ww ryoibwAlcsoycaaIsacsa b or oilrAArrooo oArrocsanyAdyw w aryrrw I oIrrrrI r dbd dbba dayrAKw AbooaAIonfa n ibb nrbbrocurArrfob ff diridf na KioaKdrococrartKiocr bab hcr dr rub uaKtrtuftlifi iehhf ibaoscrhocrtluocrll aahehe alfm irlaraea tatrocrami it e h mhmil lsas 1mhlrmbsaaltlheaheil 9baahlhe mbmbsa mbd1a b8mlm llhe 1(1 m al.ma1 ae4( ibb a 99 b(i(minmbl9mbs(1,sn mib i8a8 b iiii 8nn 9p in4gs smb4babs4H8A( b (. H, i,n( l ia ia, 4saH sHi2bini nppHce(ainllspse,ol4s iss c .b at.s eien bp. ea5ooaios Ho2cHa2lrbboH2 rbl).s l rea4 4l sace.scrrn4oH2cedrse wl5oe5eeoaalwe5aols4bbsi)ww)be ll ecw,n)l: 5o.crll.cr : dl.c rb aeeaeae)g ae:: ea:t d.cd:lrnwlw dl t alwleltaltta:e:dltةleoe: a aw:le:e ladَل: d ld ةl ةleخh dةltْteeeَلh:َلt:et:hh:)َلسخخth hdَ: a ْaخْh )ْ aie))ةl,سسtةl:ََ)سsةl ie َ e a َلَل ieفs,,J خَلhخhs,ْةl ْi iiخhe iْeففsss))سَلسفsََو)wخسh t َ ْt ,e,aر,a)ُووس, i ittَوi til فvsفsخlaرaرَsفُiُs,aرiُ iillh خ خlفََsdiخوiوَ,tit((و t aرaر ي gُeُّaر,,لو(ُ(,ltl ( خخnrَl ي ي iَِلiخّّaرمل يلََُiَّط ل a t حlِلِلخ َ,مم,ََ, َِلi(mَطَطم())َ, َطf ( حح ي ي ََّحّلraل يَ))ّ,ل()( mo( ِل ِلn ممaَ يa IََطِلَّطIمaلََطmحb(ح(bdnَnَ(حaِلn)IمَI)ََطI )n n bdbd rح a abd َatat)i( nn( h nn hna(n InttKIatKI ebdhhbnde (dhnbduI KKn ene u Kwenbdwa ttr t t huur hnwwn u ahhwoaoKtKerredK irheeriooraas oasuuK d wweduhririlwhriwssrer dd ssurdwokao hhaxho a1 orho riri1kk i riko 9sascdradfhhs9d11hhh8dri1o rh aa8 so99ad uk4 k9 grrkh 4r8t8hhk,f 8u1u1rhhu,k 1 44aa 4a9h9ffaph(ef9,,1r rف,p8 p8 r arau 8u((.9u(44فف hpr.prف4fpf8mو f,uu , e.., ر 41.ُ1وو ( (fوf re(ففp,خ p5رر5َفُ1ُ1 p رُd1J(6.)6خخ.55َفَuخوp. و 5 َiو) .)6)6eرhر )d6ُ1..ُ1 روُ1 ..vخخ.5aIhh 5َ aَخhر 5َُ1na)6s)6haIaIIخ)6 aI5 َl nnn. .ssn h. hs )6ihg b aI.aIrhaI nnnssnasaI mn Ks umraarisiahn (sT aiasr wete, lNl: orth Africa,
alaaslolss ooth ttehh eme mmeaeenaainnniignn ggo foo mff mmataautturuerr ese h ssehheeepeep.p ..
3.333 3.... 333A... 3AaA A hA.cl a sa ccaAcocaAslaAaaaafll lal ls aAt sll cs(ffchoflfocli oaas s((nae ((coili tlotii lt fnnafhhnnmfH h tlt ( (ee hf(HHheiiHHee i nn me(mnebameei ee n HnHrmbbmeHbebee irraaHerrenwaeeeeeneenbbangawwbeww:iirrnn inrbneeoen::ei::i ggrgww nfeengweee e gg gmg oggowl::oee: ) eef f eell ofoael l: i))gg m)) mgsf tfme eieiu ieigssmlclmsasal))ar ea) cct teclca itiauluaa)isus alats tserl lr uillur cllcheseldlceeearaeer eadcde ssledldʿsellahlha lhese pʿsʿleʿnʿjeehadaldheeaaa.deeeijj leenj j enee dp ʿpeeʿepʿlleza(altl . a.pل h pj. ʿj ((((j ee(aج.للe s.ْلlljc l e عججeِ ْجْeْ((el)عع(للِِ nعِل )()a)(ججt)ْْجلI ْul (((عbعِ(ِsجعIIIِْrI)nob)bbbع)y ِ n ( nn(nI)()KIIb I, bb (K KKbuKniInnnnbuuru u Ka n KKrrrAKriaaa uasuuKuiriihirsssrrasuraha hhabha1irii sii9 s1a1s11cshh8h9i99h 9s 4t8 8 818h 1h1,14449 499 ep,9,1,8,8 8 p8p.p94wp44 438.,..,,. o, 34 p333 pp3pr0,333. 3..d )p. 00 020 3.3 3 ))).4f)33 ...3o3. 5 00 03r))). )0.. g. ) e. di is gadi (يدْجَ ), and for a young goat (gedi izim)—gadi
IbIInbb nnE EzErzzarr aea x eepxxplpalliaaniisnn stsh ttahhtaa ttth ttehh etee ttreemrrmms sgs e gg2dee.id d aii n aaTdnnhd dge e gg deeAidd iiriz iaiizmzbiimim ca n aawdnnd oda rl adatlel ttreefnrorannrta aetltleaeylml yys eb ss’e ier’’(i iirarn n aa dnnHd dse e sbs’eierr’’ie irirwz iiizmz: iimm tra e rlrfeeeehffr)ee rtro i tst o oth t ttaehhl eise a s(sma يّammِلeَط ee) (Ibn Kuraish 1984, p. 156. In
spsIIsbbpepncneIeIiI cbbecEEbiInsinenzbze s arrsn EE Eaat a zaz E zdteertr rz adixxadafr p pif eieafeefllxfx faarxeepepeiipxrrnnnllepleaassatnnili inanstttnthh tis ssanssaa tt ttgastttahh hegtttgaashhhaeett tseea o s tt tt fhohtto h eetdfeefhe rr de tmdmtetevee eertrsesvrvemm lmeggroelmeesslposodd gpgmsiipg ee maaegmddedcnneinieoi de dda atnanni. nn tnggattG.dde.e end GedmdG d ggdiigee ee ipdiiegd ddzzidioeizii ii i id mrmii izimaziziziz irimiiaam immzyimnnsi i m dAdi asaasa n n ranaaayaadd llnd oyttby eedua oaioarrcll unlutnant teegntlenaahrtr grtteggnneeen r oga allgnalyytaotaotaee temassalt lltetyeeytyh b’’ lt iit sysah rrshiee teasa’as’a ’ii nteninrtar r’ e n dildn aarseaen en odnssaeeddee dnsdcd’’ iiads sisrsrste le iesli’iis’te’zi ztiesimrrsidir’ mm im iim:roizz z itiiorةriommzheemَلtخitْehff m h reeسrrَereeerr ,erar f rff tفteeen aeooarfrdnr وen tt ttd رrthhُdoio osخ tَee i tiots t tshhss,h h ttaaeetلuhhehmm sمsuseَusaحa َeesassmm ma amneee d e the word kharuf (فورُ خَ ) has
afassafppfifflfeeiissiaslccplpipitiisaaeeeeepetctssdceceei id aaieecdwetts is sw e w idda astaiihitt ittffa td hffdhdthee ii drehirffhfefefriefeeenf,ner rfrrwtr,tee,e e wsrsnnwhntetttaaihnt h lsg sgeistitlte e lteaasgeass tgge gg agoodeeeegefisfsdsd e addio ois ol aeef faofo lvvd ldnodfoee eeendenllvv ooevieeesep pev i lilsmalmoseoo n alappaepoel nmmnnsanpm on tatmeae.. ein tnnnmGGnheititmntem.ee.a. dd tG GlamG.ai i t leeGliieh edd zztdteaahiiiihi dmm tni aiai zizziit itisiiin imm zssi misgoi sa am i liooio sdsyys l f lidea aoo dsamr e uuy eya yrbrnnao o oy ubtgugubuuout unn ggunrstgtgeo ongt s is aags ggtltglitthio o l oglnltteala hhao oenttntaaa p tot to tttthh.mt h t n ntaa mhamaeettta teean nauntddt eeturneusseeeer edrdii.deet tessss.ds. i immsittt ssisoo tm mstmthh moooeettrrtohhh taaeehennrrre dda aran n iniassddnd t t di ihhisss uu it tstshshh tuuhussus s
aafffifiaalalfififaafaffiitftillefeliiiiaaddlatit taeewwedtddeii ttd wwhwh wi ihihttthheieht rrh hh,h, eewwherrre,h,h, r wwiiw,ll eewhhh giighilleleeeiedd l ggieig ee aaegddldleoiioi d n aanaill eeloaoo ilnninsoseene a a iieninsss i a aaasannn nnai in amamann naaaiinimlmlm ittmhaahallala a tttttlhh hiitsaashatt ota o iilitslsds d i ooesoerl lrloddd blbeedeururre t t bbrb ssu utubtittiult ll sslstt nt tniisiloltolllilt tl nnn lmm oonotattao t mmttmuu maraarettetau.uu.t rrureeer... e .
3. A calf (in Hebrew: egel) is called ʿajel (لجْ عِ ) (Ibn Kuraish 1984, p. 330).
3.353...5 5T.. ThTehh eCe CoCnoocnneccreenrr nno f o oCff CoCoookooiknkiignn gMg MMeaeetaa wtt wiwtihitt hMh MMilkiil lkAk ArAirsrieisssee sDs DDueuu eteo tt otoh ttehh eCe CoCmoommmmmonoo nnM MMetehettohhdoo dod f o oMff MMaraakrrekkteietntiignn gMg MMilkiil lkPk PrPorrdoouddcuuecc ee
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feffmeemmalaaellsee sts h ttehhyee yyo woowwn nna naadnnd dm mmixii xxt h ttehh eem mmil3kii.ll5 kkt. o tTtgooheggete ehCttehhorene rtcr o ettr oosn e s soleelf l lliCl n ioi nnto hk ttiehhn eemg mmMaraaekrarekktt ee.w ttT.i. t ThThuh hMusu,si sli,,k t i itiAts i rispsi s popessoo ssDsisbsiuilbbeel l eteto h t ttahhhtaa eta t C aapo pempreemsrrososnono n nM ethod of Marketing Milk Produce
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ccoonncccccoooecennnrorccnnnceee cbrrbrennunur tn tbbb w uuwubhttuth e wwtewn nwhhhd eedheennneea na lddidl neeidengaaaeglllwiai innlnwiiggtnghi gtwwwha wi iitptaIthhbi hrtp noh aaarh Eo apippbhz rrpirriootboarihhoi hoteiinhiibbxboiiifpibnttrtiiloi iooatofmininrnono n sfftmfrrh rtoofe ohrmtmmoahTmt oe tt rtthh Thhateehhoee reTTocTa ooonTohrnrero aacoarmhhehna ruh eoono s nn mnotteehnet u a aemmmskt t meuu autssa uaskttltk sli ttdtetpaa a ’tkkraskaeee lekcml aeaapaeu llllarlalt el itpplopc mrranpreeuesrcicc:getaaia“chuouuaAtnttu tiinbsiooto:edinn no “sscmnsA::o: s “o“on:“ AAskdA“ten Anndddnd id n its mother’s milk exists not
mmmosoots stpt pepoeepooplpel leew wwhohh ooh ahhvaaevv een onn oos h ssehheeepeep pa naadnnd dg oggaootaast tsas raaerr eea caacccuccusutsosttmoommedeed dt o tt oob ubbuyuiyyniignn ggt h ttehhieeri irmr mmilkiill kki n ii nnt h ttehh eem mmaraakrrekktee, tta,, naadnnd d
pmeoommsmptmoo loepsssotetwt so pptphp eepeoloooeepph powllapleeevh l weewow n whhhhooohoa sv ohhhhe aahae vvnevaeepoev nenasn oohnno ed osssehh hgpseehoe oeeaeaenppnptel s dp yaaaa n nnwgarddendoh da aggegtc oonsogcaa auoatttthassrss et te aoas asar rmeraeece r cae aeauadrc cecsacct ctcuoiuouncssmubs ttttouosheotmmydemoi meneptedodgode sd bttttsoho uoet e yosbbibsr iuuunbiomyyugynii iyninnt liohgkgngf e ig ttintthhr hht eetheemhiii rerkrei i lmmirmkmd m ii’iiallslnkkri kol k ktiiwienhn nti e n,n tt thhaem htnerehe.a d memHrm ktmaaheaerr etraskk,ka rmeeaekyttnti,e,s, l dt akata,n hnnadadndt d l ivestock owners milk all the
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tishectt tohhmhtleehlei el mmemkc tm iiieillslkkdik l c ikiofisssr l io cclsceoom occllloltlleeemleclcdcetta tecefenrdtddeoy df fmfrrs roofh ormmmemoema m mpnm .ymaaa Tnnsnafyhhynye eems yssehh khpsaeeihel.dee eeeTpp’spesh ..p. t T eTbhT. huhekThyeyeihed e kkeok’rsi iwikdd mdbi’n’d’susas ’ay bbysbneu uubnrdyyu yom eeemytrrrae k mimrymxn m aanoatyyhowya et nynn kt oomnohnttto e iok klktkwnl nnko oot noctowwahwogtew ei tt othhtl hohnteehece lloearlooo tflctcicoooiaaatc nttstsaii iooeotmoilnnfnol o in ooitotnfs fhfo iiemtfittht rssis,oe t mmsa tmmh nmoooedattrtohhrh,it keefaherernrhe,,t, dr.a ea a,n Tn nadhdnd u d s , it is possible that a person
ifi iffh ehh eeb obbuoouguhggthh ttm mmilkiill kkm mmayaabyyebb eet httehh eem mmilkiill kki niicnnlcucllududedsee sst httahhtaa tto foo fft httehh eek ikkdiid’ds’ ’ssm mmotoohttehhree rra naadnnd dh ehh eew wwillii llllc occmoommmmmiti itta aa
ibfo uhiiifffge i fhhhh bteeheo m eubbb igoolobkhuuuotggmug hhhgmattht y itlmmbm kem iiillmltkkikhl akemmym mbmaaaeyyiyal bbkbyteehebi n eett tc hhhwlmteeuhe hd ielmmom ek sm iipillilktkunikhl rc kaciili ntnuhniccoadncllfslueucuesltdddudh eed eetsashse k askttitt hhid hdtaa’oha sttffta o mtooro tfh fofo i ettfttsh t hh hekmteeheri d eeakkak ’nsiitikdd d dmi’’md’sshs i ’ ogesmmtm hwhmotooe ittartolhhlh ltseehecaorrorne mprdaaa u nnmnarhddndcie htd hhah aweeshet ei rel wwalw i tnwisicills lllomilg l mlrccoc eoomotcsmmhmosieimtmmomr ’nmaiisitt. t mi taaa i lak . This is indeed an unlikely
trtatrrnaasnngssrggerrseesssisosiinoo.nn .A. AAndnnd dw wwhehhreeerr eet h ttehhreeerr eei s i issa naaynn yyd doduooubutbb tct occnoocnneccreenrrinnniignn ggp prporrhooihhbiiibbtiiitotiinoosnn ssf r fofrrmoomm t h ttehh eeT ToTrooarrhaa hha aas tsrstitrnriignneggneetnn tt
tratnttrrrsaatagrnnnarssensggsgsrrsrgeeierosssessnssii.ioos oinAnno..nn. AA.dA n Annwddnd h d wwew rwhhheee herrtreheeer e ettrthh hetee hecrriroeseee rn aeiicissn se i yrsaaan nnnad yybnyo u yudddt boo dowtuuuo bbchubottetb n ncctcc oo ocednnnoreccnncaeeeiclrrnriennnngriign innnp iggwngr o gppipth rrhprioobo rhahihot iihiibpbboiiirinbttotiiisioohto innifnobrssnsoi tsffmifrr oroof onrmmtmo hfm er tto thh hTmteeheo erTTtTa hooToherrro aaaTarhhh ao sh raataa r aihsssn tt trrsgoriiteinnnrnnieggngt ee egmnnnettunt stt take all precautions: “And
apaapppprporraoocaahcc hhis i istsa ttkaaekknee”nn ”(”T ((ThTehh eLe LoLnoognn ggC CoCmoommmmmeneetnnattraayrr yyto tt ooE ExEoxxdoodudusu s2s 3 22:3 31:: 9 11)99. ))..
appaaaprppaopppparrprcooohraaao ccicashhh c t h iiaisss k i ttsetaa antkkka”eeek nn(neT””n” h ((”(TeT T( hhLTheeohe n LLeLg ooLo nnCnoggngo m CgCmC oooCmommsmotem mmnmptmeeeaeonnrneptytntaala trterraoyy ywr E tyttoohx ot oo EoEE d xxhExuooaoxdsdvdo uu2edu 3ssusn : 22 so2133 392:s:: )3h 11.1: 9e9 91)e))9..p. ) . and goats are accustomed to buying their milk in the market, and
JeJJfeeffrffefrryee yyT TiTgiiaggyaa yyc l caclliaamiimmedeed dth ttahhtaa ott noo nnp prpirnriicnnicpciiplpel lese u ssucuhcc hha aca o ccnoocnneccreenrr nnm mmigiihggthh att r aairsrieiss eien ii nns m ssmmalaal llvll ivvlliiallllgaaeggsee sws wwhehhreeerr eteh ttehhreeerr ee
isi1 isns onnT oosh Je esespefMefpaJJpJreeireaseafJfahfrfeyfrftnrarfai reaefTtoetriyyi(nyioe‘og r n yTTenTbap ii yeTbiggebgt aeiaaecwagttyeyltwyaawde ycicecesmell ntleaacuea neilidnitmamdm hy itt’ mehee)the dhdwedmee a a d mttmtteshh haotreaaeehatnatttda ta hta aoto pto ncean natnro dnem n in dppnd pdm rirbc prl imiiykmininprnl Rickciilnicls.eiil kippckJ i pcusn il liopdlueiednenal l c dlsusehdsheuu usutcus hctcastucrsehhe thitccrdeP rh aoiasira e ei fn. ncsac rsccAoc.oo .o cee nAnmA norafccn atnc efemfte racrhmramrernneranmrim enen gmmnmryeh ed miri wrtigsg og whiahwfhhhgretttohhhthi e saa eotaporer rs ura .i rier iissruncTsnueeioesnhs n ns i ieseidannsmn ni a kcan ssae nsinmma nldms l nta m’uaaavasinrnllm ilylaliblli mll vmvCauval iilEaygivlal l.lflleeillaa Tala rsfgflghra g aammeweeregrsmsMmsa he s wwsyie wes s srhwlhhnehelensleeo lahel tlrrsttrhsieee hse krte tt ethtenhrhthh heeeoetee he wrrreeee r t eh e location of its mother, and
is niifiissosr i nsnssnt ooemnop ossasaeje oesrpprpaeaawtparirrraoaaiatrnttttaiie ioontboinnernoe tn bdbwba eeebcettttweweiwotnnweee eeoteehnnfnete hn tt thhem hteJeheee w mmeami iftsme e ehaaahaenotteta r d aaa taln nbnmatdrdondai u dd lmmmkig tim ihioiillnlnktkik sdl kiimaiunnnn idsddindltuuklrduais swusettmtsrrssri..iti eaerTeAsisyhse.. be. sf AAaeTA. a r A lfmftmfaah afrurereammdrm r (mwemeaerrlrshe i o wlwrowk G whh rheoiuomhon n oarrcrrsuul uaur nn,aundmsnsns e e aasasaan n nnna s tin aahma‘sn nantauaiitnimmdl m iyofmaa’aafllorl a r fmffltaa‘ halfrre raesmamme rrnml k slissnsiee de gslltl’lel’h)lssslsie ls tts thmh hteeheo eth er and he will commit a
mmmmeaeeemmtaaama ttomctee e ofooaao laelfftttfet ah c ttoottotehhh iff ofoe e fe tnt f ath hff hforataeeafmherr rc fmmefmof aa aamfrr r naaammmamrinnnmem ii naaimmamtan nanalaairiasnimimllme lssiassma a naoaaallnlsdnansns ladd aadsana n n dlnaaaasddllndeolss l std a aooaroatbl al h losasttstnehhroolhoassie e ter ogttiiit hoihrr rhmrnt eee hemmsmisiiirerolsrkii fiii llmmrlo mtkkkhp nm iie prpillp.lkoMk ikrrrAl d ooi koppspddunh drrpruncuodouoeardccd cdho eewueiuduan ciicnhiuc nnenedteec h r ttcieitiehnheenh nr i e e tlen tttao thh hlli hlcnooteoeeheacca r c llelauaela oo oxmll llc cii commlasamiaaac llrlraa aa a ykmmrrlmnr ekkmkmyaataeeae r rttratadktke k nraareeoaekidnntatnut e ldd asadbtta. n h nt nttTat dehhdhhndcre ee oed ettrrtthrhnf heeeeoterecffhefmrrooeroreeeerrrer‘r fnfeeTfteeooa hoi fttrlnrtmroehheehgerre e ue e tetrrdthrhp hee’ewteer rhe wworerwareefeheesaar ar i wewssswbas t iwaaaaoaats si sao aasna sa from the Torah a stringent
rerraeesaaostshnooeannJbaearlbbuels leeca lh cecmahhnaaTcnnaelccm eetu h tdtahht(aaT taat l amab uubbduyueYyyereer ruwr s whwoauolomuludil)ld dpw puhpiurcuchrrhcwcahhasaasessc eoem m mmepaeieltaea dtat niaandnntd hdme mLmilakinill dkkf ro foffrrmIoosmrm ate h ltteh(hc e.es 4a s0sma0amCmeE eem) , mamontodohtttehhhreee r(rc To ((lTilTgeiciaggtiyaoa yny1 k 911n999o69w9,6 6n,,
rearrsareeoseraaantesshsaaooeosbnnBnolaaaenabbb bayclllbleheoe l an ceccinhh ahccnaahaennTna actcnclheemec a tuettthhd htaaaha( tTttba a aautlam yabbbu euuubdryyuy Bweeeyaarrvreop lwwriuwp) ,lworocodouuouo amlpluldcddpuhl id prpl peic uusdpuh rrtbuarccaycsrhhkhectaaeh hasmsensaees”es e c memha(m Totmee lehaaaaareenttsta d Laoataf n nonamBdndndagi bd lmmy mkC lm ioiiflolnlkrkikmiol a kffmf(mrr croof. oremtm5mohn0m 0e t tta tChh shrtEeaeyhe) m . sestsaoa easmm mEammexeeo o memtmd hmouooettsrtohh h 2t(eeheT3rrre: i ((gr1(TT Ta9(iiyT)iggg. iaa1agyy9ya 9 y11169 991,99 996669,,, 6 ,
ppppp.p 1.. 4 11044–004––144)11. ))..
ppp.pp 1pppp4..p. 0 111–.44 44100041–––)044.4– 1114)))1... ) . Jeffrey Tigay claimed that on principle such a concern might arise in small villages where there
4.4 4D.. DDisiicssuccususssissoiinoon na n aandnd dC CoCnooncnlccullusuissoiinoonsn ss is no separation between the meat and milk industries. A farmer who runs an animal farm sells the
4. D444..i. 4s DDD.c Diuiissssciccssuuuicsosusssnssiii osoaoinnnno dn aaan n nCaddndo d CCnC cooColnnunoccsncllilucuoulssnusiiisosoo innnomssns esa t of the farm animals and also their milk produce in the local market and therefore there was a
TTThTehhh eTeTeT ph hThpapeephep aa aepepppp preeaae parrpprp ad eepeddirdrsre iic issrsuddcc dcusuiiudisssssscsceicsssususueece ssssussss ts seehettssstehhseh eesett tih hmhtriieeihmemem p aepapiis pimmcmoaaaitccmnpp cpttataa opa bccfocoaotlt te ffc f m t ooc ommmfhfefo d aeefemmn ddimdeciimeevieeeeeddavv devtiliaadihea eellvilva Mve ataavMM Mllual a usulubMM lMssisumllMuluiiyuimmmss eusllrl icis im mulmwccicuulm ui onllclcii uciannuunulcraaldlaulyiirrin nrln yypyiaana pu rrrayprpyrpyrac rrr ychaaappt paccicrrttcsprtaaiieeaiccrcccs ceeatetm tisscisicc toc eeeienaocossoset nn n s a oIo obnnInIInonbbdb n nn nIIm I bEb bInEnEziEnblr zzkn zarrE Er ’Eaafaszrz’E’z ’ossrrsrza am ar’’’sas s t’ sh e same mother (Tigay 1996,
iniiitnnnetttreieieipnnrrnriptrptpnteeeerrrrtrteereepappttrttararapireettoetriittintooaeaoasnntttntai issiooosto i nfnoonoo sfstffns h tt oostoehhh ff foee be tt fth hibb hbbteeiiheilbb bi bbecllblii iiaiccibbbcblaaial llbpillilic c lcprpapaiaocrrllrl ah oo opppplihhh rbrppriiooiibbob.rthh iihio1ittoiithiii4bbinbooo0iii inbntt–natiii io4og ataoai1nnaggnog) i aa.n aaan aiigi gsnngantaassag siitctitnan no ccicssonsootott k osoo cctcikkook nociiooignnoonkk ggkogaii iknn aankaigg ng ikk k d gaaiiaidd di kaknk ii iiii nknddnidti diis iiititnn tn ssmsi n i immimttot ssistoo toh mmsttmt ehhhmooroeee’ttrrtoshrhh’’ ’tsseemshe rr mmrem’’i’sslrskii ’i llmmsl.mkkk Im..ii. bill IIlkkInbbikbl.. nn. k nE III .bb EEzbEInnrnbzzza rrn EEr’Eaaas zz’E’z ’ssrrbsrza a aabbrb’’s’saasaasi ’ssc bsbsbii i accacab ss saiiiccsc i c
coccnoocnneccpeeptpitotiinoo nnis i istsh ttahhtaa ttth ttehh ece o ccmoommmmmonoo nnr e rraeelaaitlliyitt yiyn ii nnth ttehh eMe MMuusulsismlliimm r e rrgeeiggoiinoo,nn w,, wwhihhcihicc hhin iicnnlcucllududedsee stsh ttehh ece o ccuoounutnnrtitreriisee sos f oo tffh ttehh eBe BiBbiilbbel,le e,,
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mmmeaeetaa att n aadnnd dm mmilkiill kkth ttahhtaa htt ahhvaaevv ebe ebbeeenee nnc o ccoookooekkdeed dto ttgooeggteehttehhree.r rI.. b IInbb nnE EzErzzarr’aas’ ’sps popiooniitnn ott foo dff dedpeepapraatrurtturuerr eies i istsh ttahhtaa ttth ttehh ece o ccmoommbibbniianntaaitotiinoo nn
memmamtmee eaaaaenttta d aatan n nmaddndi dl mmmk m iitillhlkkikla ktttthh hhtaahaattta v hhthe aaha vvbvaeeeev e bbebne eeb eeceennone on ccckoo oceoooodkkko Teetekdodhdeg ed ttet oo ottggphgoeeaeegttprthehh.et eeIherrbrr e..n. r IdII .bbE biInsnnzbc rn EuEEa zszE’zssrrrzea aaprs’’’saso s ’i pptspnh ooptoei iioon nnfittint md ootofe fpfo p ddafda eecderptppte auapaorrrrattfetuur u tirrmusreee r t e iiehissds a i titsttheh httvaahhaatttea l tt tthhc htMoeehe m cceucoo boscmmlimoinmmbbabiit ibnninoiacanauntttaii liootioinnnnoa n r y practices on Ibn Ezra’s
interpretations of the biblical prohibition against cooking a kid in its mother’s milk. Ibn Ezra’s basic
conception is that the common reality in the Muslim region, which includes the countries of the Bible,
usually preserves ancient ways of life, and thus we can utilize it to understand the restriction of eating
meat and milk that have been cooked together. Ibn Ezra’s point of departure is that the combination
Religions2018,9,174 9of12
AndwherethereisanydoubtconcerningprohibitionsfromtheTorahastringentapproachistaken”
(TheLongCommentarytoExodus23: 19).
JeffreyTigayclaimedthatonprinciplesuchaconcernmightariseinsmallvillageswherethere
isnoseparationbetweenthemeatandmilkindustries. Afarmerwhorunsananimalfarmsellsthe
meatofthefarmanimalsandalsotheirmilkproduceinthelocalmarketandthereforetherewasa
reasonablechancethatabuyerwouldpurchasemeatandmilkfromthesamemother(Tigay1996,
pp.140–41).
4. DiscussionandConclusions
The paper discusses the impact of medieval Muslim culinary practices on Ibn Ezra’s
interpretations of the biblical prohibition against cooking a kid in its mother’s milk. Ibn Ezra’s
basicconceptionisthatthecommonrealityintheMuslimregion,whichincludesthecountriesofthe
Bible,usuallypreservesancientwaysoflife,andthuswecanutilizeittounderstandtherestriction
of eating meat and milk that have been cooked together. Ibn Ezra’s point of departure is that the
combination of these two products in a culinary setting is not a random occurrence, but rather a
commonpractice. Thecombineduseoftheseproductsfollowsalengthytraditionwithinregional
cuisine that was preserved in the Islamic region, which includes a migrant/economic element of
raising animals and utilizing their produce (meat and milk products). Ibn Ezra’s contentions are
supportedbycontemporarycookbooks,forexamplerecipestakenfromthecastlekitchensofMuslim
caliphs. Meatandmilkweremixedinpreparingchoiceandelegantdishesaswellasinfestivemeals
andbanquets.
Throughouthistory,severalexplanationsandjustificationswereofferedfortheprohibitionof
cookingmeatwithmilk. IbnEzraexplainsthebasisfortheTorah’sspecificprohibitionofcookinga
kidgoatinitsmother’smilkratherthanmeatinmilkingeneral,aswaslateracceptedinpracticein
Jewishlaw,usingseveralculinaryandmedicalviewspopularamongtheMuslims:
1. Itisnotcustomarytoeatrawmeat,thereforetheTorahspeaksspecificallyofcooking.
2. Cooking kid’s meat, rather than any other type of meat, in milk is rooted in the
nutritional/medicalcompatibilityofthetwoproducts.
3. TheTorahmentionskid’smeatspecificallyduetoitspreferenceoverlambandmedievalpractice
provesthatitwasamorepopularfood.
4. Thereferencetocookinginthemother’smilkratherthaninmilkingeneralisalsojustified,as
explainedbytheMuslimunderstanding.
Accordingtothis,kid’smeatismoresuitableforcookingspecificallyinitsmother’smilkbecause
theybothcomefromthesamesourceandthereforetheircombinationproducesamoreagreeabledish.
Inlightofthefactthatthiscombinationwasarecommendedoneinhistime,IbnEzraadmitsthathe
doesnotunderstandthereasonfortheprohibitionbuthenonethelessoffersanexplanation: “Andwe
havenoneedtoseekthereasonfortheprohibition,asitisnotknowntothewise. Itmaybethatitisa
crueltyoftheheart”(TheLongCommentarytoExodus23: 19).
A point worthy of attention is the scientific foundations of Ibn Ezra’s nutritional-medical
explanations. In his biblical commentary Ibn Ezra presents the qualities of mixed meat and milk
dishes as well as other elements not discussed here. For example, his discussion of the approach
wherebyeatingbitterherbswiththePassoverofferingonthenightoftheexodusfromEgyptinvolveda
medicalneedrelatedtothehumidairinEgypt(TheLongCommentarytoExodus12:8).IbnEzraisnot
knownasaphysician,althoughsomeattributetohimthewritingofmedicalworks(Leibowitz1966,
p.248). Hisexplanationsoftheprohibitionagainstcookingmeatwithmilkarebasedontheprinciples
ofGreco-Romanmedicine(thedoctrineofthefourtemperaments)thatformedthebasisformedieval
diagnosisandtreatment, andtheviewshevoicescanbefoundamongotherphysiciansofhisera,
proofofhiscurrentknowledgeinthenutritional/medicalfield.
Religions2018,9,174 10of12
Infact,thebasisforIbnEzra’sinterpretationthat“theScripturesspeakofthepresent”appears
inearlierancientsources,butheappliesittotherealityofhistimes. TheargumentthattheTorah
mentioneda“kid”becauseitiscustomarytoeatkid’smeatspecificallyappearsinMekhiltadeRabbi
Ishmael,whichisatannaitic2 midrashhalakhaonthebookofExodus: “Donotcookayounggoat
in its mother’s milk, it says only young goat, from where do we learn about all other animals?
TheScripturesspeakofthepresent”(HorovitzandRabin1931,p. 21). Thisprinciplewasbroughtin
severalmidrashicandhalakhicsourcesadjacenttoIbnEzra’stime,forexampleinthePesiktaZutrata
composedbyR.TuvyabenEliezerinthe11thcentury(Buber1880,Exodus23: 19)andinthe12th
centurybyMaimonides((Maimonides2002),hilchotma’achalotasurot[=lawsofforbiddenfoods]
9:3). Nonetheless,itappearsthatIbnEzrawasamongthefewtoexplainthemeaningoftheprinciple
andtolenditvalidityandrelevanceinviewofcontemporarypractices.
IbnEzraclaimedthatthepreferenceforcookingkid’smeatinmilkinhisperiodstemmedfrom
healthreasons. However,somesuggestedotherwise. R.ShmuelbenMeir(Rashbam,1080–1160)links
thistoeconomicconsiderationsrelatedtotheancientautarkicfarm. InhiscommentaryonExodus
23:19hewrites: “Itisthemannerofthegoatstogivebirthtotwokidsatatime,andpeoplewould
slaughteroneofthem,andsincemostmilk[comesfrom]goatstheywouldcookitinthemother’s
milk,andtheScripturesspeakofthepresent”(benMeir1997,p. 58). Namely,agoatusuallygives
birthtotwokids(thelitterusuallyincludesoneortwokids,butthebirthoftwinsiscommoningoats,
see(Alon1990,p. 238));oneiseatenandtheotherisusedtomaintaintheflock(formeatorbreeding).
Hesaysthatmuchofthemilkwasproducedfromgoatsratherthansheep,andthereforekidgoats
wereusuallycookedingoatmilk. However,Rashbam,wholivedindistantEurope,hadnoideaofthe
realityinEretzIsraelinhisowntimenorinbiblicaltimes,soitistobeassumedthathiscommentary
isbasedonpracticesfamiliartohim.
ConflictsofInterest:Theauthordeclaresnoconflictsofinterest.
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