Medicine Update 2021 -Two Volumes Set (An Official Publication of API)-Volume 31-2021

1525 Pages·2021·34.711 MB·English

by  Dr Kamlesh Tewary

Section 1
Section Editor: Yash Pal Munjal
COVID-19
1. COVID-19 and Hypertension 6. Diabetes and COVID-19:
K Tewary What Is the Connection?
Viswanathan Mohan
2. COVID-19: An Overview
Madhulata Agarwal, Mayank Gupta, Lavina Chandwani, 7. COVID-19-associated Renal Injury
Sangeeta Choudhary, Somyata Somendra, Sajna Choudhary, Shashidhar Shree Niwas, Ramya Vedula,
Sunil Kumar Mahavar, Bharat Bhushan Sharma, Prateek Kumar, Madhuri, Shashank Jain
Arvind Palawat, Raman Sharma
8. Sahaja Yoga Meditation for Reduction of Stress
3. Hydroxychloroquine for Cytokine Storms:
during the Present Corona Pandemic
Pros and Cons
Sandeep Rai, Devdutt Rai, Madhur Rai
Daya Kishore Hazra, Padmamalika Khanna nee Hazra,
9. Diagnosis and Management of Corona Infection
Ratnamalika Kumar, Suratwant Hazra
Sandeep Garg, Avishkar Agarwal, Sunita Aggarwal
4. Hematological Manifestations of COVID-19
10. Clinical Presentation and Systemic Manifestations
Sudhir Mehta, Nidhi Sharma
of COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019)
5. Effect of COVID-19 on Health-care Workers
Rajib Ratna Chaudhary, Sarda Mukund Shyam
KC Shashidhara, Spoorthy Raj
11. Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome
Yash Pal Munjal, Anupam Prakash

C H A P T E R
1
COVID-19 and Hypertension
K Tewary
A b s t r a c t
The COVID-19 pandemic has taken us unprecedented, and management of comorbidities has become challenging as a
consequence. Presence of comorbidities has shown to be an increased risk factor for critical illness. Since it’s a relatively
new disease, there is a lack of robust clinical data concerning COVID-19 infection and presence of comorbidities. Among
the COVID-19 patients who died in Italy, it was observed that those with comorbidities including hypertension (69%),
diabetes (31%), ischemic heart disease (27%), atrial fibrillation (21%), and heart failure (16%) were the most important
factors for the increased mortality rates observed (Gruppo Della database, 2020).
Introduction Management of Hypertension in the
The COVID-19 pandemic has taken us unprecedented, and COVID-19 Era and the Possible Role of
management of comorbidities has become challenging as RAAS Inhibitors
a consequence. Presence of comorbidities has shown to
With the current scenario, it becomes very crucial to
be an increased risk factor for critical illness. Since it’s
manage cardiovascular risk factors to reduce significant
a relatively new disease, there is a lack of robust clinical
morbidity and mortality. A significant proportion of these
data concerning COVID-19 infection and presence of
patients are on renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
comorbidities. Among the COVID-19 patients who died
(RAAS) inhibitors as therapy for their hypertension.
in Italy, it was observed that those with comorbidities
The European Society of Cardiology (ESC) has come
including hypertension (69%), diabetes (31%), ischemic
heart disease (27%), atrial fibrillation (21%), and heart up with a recent guidance document under the expert
failure (16%) were the most important factors for the panel of health-care professionals managing COVID-19
increased mortality rates observed (Gruppo Della concomitantly with cardiovascular disease. Multivariable
database, 2020). The highest percentage of association was adjusted models have shown cardiac injury, especially
with hypertension. In a meta-analysis done, it was shown elevated cardiac troponin-T levels to be a significant
that the extent of hyperglycemia was lower in survivors mortality indicator. Studies have reported that in a
and non-severe subset of patients. Similarly, presence of significant proportion of COVID-19 patients, direct
hypertension was associated with higher mortality rates myocardial injury resulting in elevated cardiac troponins
and necessity of ICU care.1 So far there is no evidence to is the main effect seen (approximately 8–12% patients).
show that hypertension reduces immunity or increases the Presence of pre-existing cardiac disease tends to worsen
predisposition toward getting infected with COVID-19.2 this.3,4 Additionally, COVID-19 associated pneumonia
4 SECTION 1 COVID-19
has shown to induce long-term hypercoagulable state, understand the effect of this class of drugs (cases) as
which again contributes to worsening cardiovascular compared to those on other classes of antihypertensives
outcomes. The viral myocarditis has also been responsible acting as control subjects. The cases were control
for precipitating arrhythmias. Taken into consideration matched by a factor of 10 to give a total of 11,390 controls.
all these factors, ESC has suggested that it’s vital to Interestingly, there was no increase in the severity of
communicate to seek immediate medical guidance if COVID-19 symptoms requiring hospital admission or
a patient has been diagnosed with COVID-19 and has increase in the complication rate leading to more fatality
significant cardiovascular comorbidities. The emphasis is for the cases relative to the controls (OR: 0.94, CI: 0.77–
not to discontinue any of the drugs, either aspirin or RAAS 1.15). In another large cohort study of 5,700 COVID-19
inhibitors unless as advised by the treating specialist. patients from the Northwell area, New York, it was seen
In a large retrospective study in 2,877 patients admitted there was no significant difference in mortality rates
with COVID-19 at Huo Shen Shan hospital, Wuhan, 29.5% between those managed with RAAS inhibitors versus those
presented with a history of hypertension. Interestingly, on other classes of antihypertensives. It’s an established
it was observed that in patients who had a history of fact that these drugs increase the mRNA expression of
hypertension but were not under current therapy for the cardiac ACE2, but yet their role in determining outcomes
same, the mortality rate was twice as those who were in COVID-19 patients remains ambiguous.7 Although
being managed with pharmacotherapy for the same the data studied were observational studies and not
[HR:2.17,(1.03-4.57, p=0.04)]. In fact, the mortality rates randomized control trials (RCTs), there is a certain
were similar for those on RAAS inhibitors versus those on degree of reassurance that RAAS inhibitors can be safely
other classes of antihypertensive drugs [HR: 0.85, (0.28- continued in spite of the infection.8 One of the studies
2.58,p = 0.774)], although the results were not statistically reportedly employed a Bayesian method of analysis in
significant.5 In the largest study of its kind, 884 COVID-19 COVID-19 subjects to determine whether any of the five
positive patients were enrolled out of which 149 had classes of antihypertensive drugs (ACE-inhibitors, ARBs,
hypertension, and interestingly majority of the patients beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers and thiazide
were treated with calcium channel blockers. Compared diuretics) played a role in the severity of infection. One
to those without a history of hypertension, this subgroup of the advantages of using a Bayesian analysis is that
of patients presented with more severe respiratory unobserved variables can be accommodated in the
symptoms requiring more intensive therapy including use process whenever there’s a diagnostic or clinical error thus
of intravenous immunoglobulin therapy and ultimately rendering the analytic process more robust. None of these
longer ICU stay. This again emphasizes the importance classes of drugs were associated with worsening outcomes
of aggressive BP management for better outcomes.6 In in COVID-19 disease.9 There has also been reports of usage
another study from Wuhan province, Yang et al. attempted of RAAS inhibitors resulting in attenuation of inflammatory
to understand the role of hypertension further. To remove markers like IL-6; the authors have also reported that
the possibility of bias due to various confounding variables calcium channel blockers as a class has also shown
that may skew the analysis, a propensity score matching mortality benefits;10 they have also emphasized the use
(PSM) was done. In the cohort of 226 COVID-19 patients of telemedicine platforms in this pandemic era to provide
studied, analysis revealed that presence of hypertension better access to health-care resources and for better
could increase death rate significantly (HR: 3.317, CI: outcomes. Mobile health services have been emphasized
1.709-6.44, p<0.001). Interestingly, elevated D-dimer especially for the populations with limited access to
levels and higher neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio was found health-care resources. With just an application on the
to increase mortality risk overall. However, this difference mobile phone, patients can continuously communicate
was not significant across the age groups, whether less with the health-care providers as long as self BP monitoring
than 65 years of age or above. (SBPM) training is provided. In another retrospective
In a larger scale epidemiological study from Spain, review based in Shenzen Third People’s Hospital, 42
involving 1,139 COVID-19 patients on concurrent therapy COVID-19 positive patients were categorized as those on
with RAAS inhibitors, further attempt was made to RAAS inhibitors versus other classes of antihypertensives.
COVID-19 and Hypertension CHAPTER 1 5
The percentage of patients ending up with severe disease
was lower for those RAAS inhibitors (23.5%) with no
mortality numbers whereas those on non-RAAS inhibitors
the percentage was higher (48%) and one patient died.
Also levels of inflammatory markers, IL-6, CRP were lower
in the former; in addition the CD3+, CD4+, CD8+ cell
count was higher for those on RAAS inhibitors with lower
viral load. Although no direct causality can be established
with use of RAAS inhibitors and severity of disease, the
authors assume that the differences observed could be
attributed to the higher levels of Angiotensin-II for those
on non-RAAS inhibitors.11 In a similar retrospective study,
282 hypertensive patients admitted for COVID-19 were
identified, out of which 41 subjects were managed with
Fig. 1: Ambiguous role of RAAS inhibitors in the COVID-19 disease
RAAS inhibitors versus 241 who were on alternate class
pathogenesis
of drugs. Primarily, the authors noted that hypertensive
patients as a group were more likely end up critically ill.
se. Therefore, before any conclusions could be made
All cause mortality was higher in this group as per cox
concerning hypertension and severity of COVID-19
regression analysis. Additionally, use of RAAS inhibitors
infection, these confounding factors should be adjusted
was associated with lower CRP levels and higher CD4+ cell
count, with better outcomes.12 Hence, they emphasize on appropriately.13 Secondly, the role of RAAS inhibitors in the
outcomes of COVID-19 infection seems ambiguous and
a holistic approach on managing patients and continuing
more research is needed to ascertain further as to whether
the antihypertensive therapy no matter what the class of
their use results in better or adverse clinical outcomes in
drugs being used.
the COVID-19 scenario (Fig. 1 and Flowchart 1).
RAAS Inhibitors Mechanism of Action and
Where do we Stand with the
the Pathway of COVID-19 Infection
Available Data?
There are multiple mechanisms through which RAAS
It’s not surprising that majority of COVID-19 patients
inhibitors work on the cardio-metabolic axis and could
potentially interfere with the clinical course of COVID-19 are hypertensive and does not necessarily imply any
infection. causality between the two conditions. It just is a finding
As far as the discussion above is concerned, there is that hypertension as comorbidity is very common in the
couple of factors that needs to taken into account. Firstly, elderly and COVID-19 is an infection that the elderly are
how much does hypertension play a definite role in the particularly vulnerable to and prone to develop severe
severity of COVID-19. Sisnieguez et al. has commented clinical presentation of the disease.14 Hence, most of the
in a review study about the possibility of confounding data that’s available so far is more of a clinical guidance
factors that could possibly lead to false conclusions about and not conclusive evidence. In the current pandemic
the association between hypertension and COVID-19 situation, owing to the limited allocation of time and
outcomes. They go to explain that the increased mortality resources so far to deal with the unprecedented situation,
observed in the elderly with COVID-19 could be most of the data that’s available is observational study data
confounded due to increased prevalence of cardiovascular and not RCTs and may not be the best in terms of hierarchy
disease in the elderly which has been well established in of evidence. We have had prior scenarios where there was
the multivariate model (where the association between discordance between observational and RCT studies,
cardiovascular disease and COVID-19 is well established), which was attributed to various factors including selection
but this has not been established with hypertension per bias, presence of confounding factors, differences in
6 SECTION 1 COVID-19
Flowchart 1: Should ACE-inhibitors and ARBs be stopped with COVID-19
statistical power of the study, and issues with study Conclusion
adherence throughout. A classic example was the finding
that bisphosphonates decrease risk of postmenopausal For newly detected hypertension, classes of drugs other than
RAAS inhibitors could be considered for initiation of therapy
breast cancer as ascertained by observational study
due to the paucity of conclusive evidence concerning either
which was later refuted based on the results from a couple
the benefits or possible deleterious effects of RAAS inhibitors
of RCTs.15 Hence, one needs to be careful in forming
on the severity of COVID-19 infection.
conclusions about the association of hypertension and
COVID-19 infection and also about the use of RAAS
References
inhibitors. Yet, it would be reasonable to assume that
managing hypertension and other comorbidities would be 1. Parveen R, Sehar N, Bajpai R, et al. Association of diabetes
of high priority. Since there’s no conclusive data showing and hypertension with disease severity in covid-19 patients:
the deleterious effect of any class of hypertensive drugs, it a systematic literature review and exploratory meta-analysis.
would be wise to continue the drug to maintain BP control. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2020;166:108295.
2. Drager LF, Pio-Abreu A, Lopes RD, et al. Is Hypertension a real
As discussed earlier, for newly detected hypertension,
risk factor for poor prognosis in the COVID-19 pandemic? Curr
classes of drugs other than RAAS inhibitors could be
Hypertens Rep. 2020;22(6):43. Available from https://www.ncbi.
considered for initiation of therapy due to the paucity
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7292934/
of conclusive evidence concerning either the benefits
3. ESC Guidance for the Diagnosis and Management of CV Disease
or possible deleterious effects of RAAS inhibitors on the during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Available from https://www.escardio.
severity of COVID-19 infection. org/Education/COVID-19-and-Cardiology/ESC-COVID-19-Guidance
COVID-19 and Hypertension CHAPTER 1 7
4. Chopra. COVID-19, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. 10. Ferdinand KC, Vo TN, Echols MR, et al. State-of-the-art review:
Available from http://www.journalofdiabetology.org/article. hypertension practice guidelines in the era of COVID-19. Am J Prev
asp?issn=2078-7685;year=2020;volume=11;issue=2;spage=57;epa Cardiol. 2020;2:100038.
ge=64;aulast=Chopra 11. Meng J, Xiao G, Zhang J, et al. Renin-angiotensin system inhibitors
5. Gao C, Cai Y, Zhang K, et al. Association of hypertension improve the clinical outcomes of COVID-19 patients with
and antihypertensive treatment with COVID-19 mortality: a hypertension. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2020;9(1):757-60.
retrospective observational study. Eur Heart J. 2020;41(22):2058-66. 12. Pan Wei, Zhang Jishou, Wang Menglong, et al. Clinical features
6. Hu J, Zhang X, Zhang X, et al. COVID-19 patients with hypertension of COVID-19 in patients with essential hypertension and
have more severity condition, and ACEI/ARB treatment have no the impacts of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system Inhibitors
influence on the clinical severity and outcome. J Infect. 2020. Available on the prognosis of COVID-19 patients. Hypertension. 2020;76(3):
from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7255723/ 732-41.
7. Richardson S, Hirsch JS, Narasimhan M, et al. Presenting 13. Sisnieguez CEL, Espeche WG, Salazar MR, et al. Arterial hypertension
characteristics, comorbidities, and outcomes among 5700 patients and the risk of severity and mortality of COVID-19. Eur Respir
hospitalized with COVID-19 in the New York City Area. JAMA. J. 2020. Available from https://erj.ersjournals.com/content/
2020;323(20):2052-9. early/2020/05/07/13993003.01148-2020
8. Williams B, Zhang Y. Hypertension, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone 14. Schiffrin EL, Flack JM, Ito S, et al. Hypertension and COVID-19. Am J
system inhibition, and COVID-19. Lancet. 2020;395(10238):1671-3. Hypertens. 2020;33(5):373-4.
9. Dunson DB. Commentary: practical advantages of bayesian analysis 15. Ross JS. Randomized clinical trials and observational studies are
of epidemiologic data. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153(12):1222-6. more often alike than unlike. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174(10):1557.
C H A P T E R
2
COVID-19: An Overview
Madhulata Agarwal, Mayank Gupta, Lavina Chandwani, Sangeeta Choudhary,
Somyata Somendra, Sajna Choudhary, Sunil Kumar Mahavar, Bharat Bhushan Sharma,
Arvind Palawat, Raman Sharma
A b s t r a c t
Emerging and reemerging infectious diseases have plagued mankind and have been potential killers since historic times.
The current pandemic of COVID-19 is the latest crisis that has challenged leadership and health infrastructures globally.
COVID-19, caused by SARS-CoV-2, began as an outbreak of pneumonia of unknown cause at a local seafood market
in Wuhan, China, and soon spread globally claiming more than a million of lives. The virus has a wide spectrum of
symptoms due to the ability of its S protein to bind to h-ACE2 receptors on various tissues like lung, heart, kidneys, GI
tract, and olfactory epithelium. It transmits predominantly as a respiratory droplet infection from person to person and by
direct contact with contaminated surfaces. COVID-19 encompasses a spectrum of asymptomatic/presymptomatic, mild,
moderate, and severe to life threatening critical illness. Most common symptoms are cough (53%), fever (43%), myalgia
(36%), headache (34%), dyspnea (29%), and sore throat (20%); less common are diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, anosmia,
dysguesia, and dermatological manifestations. Risk factors for severe disease are old age, uncontrolled hypertension,
diabetes, COPD, cardiovascular disease, obesity (BMI > 30), and malignancy and immunocompromised status. Patients of
COVID-19 develop complications like pneumonia with or without respiratory failure, cardiomyopathy, acute myocardial
ischemia, arrhythmias, thromboembolic complications, cytokine release syndrome, encephalopathy, ileus, mesenteric
ischemia, secondary bacterial infection, sepsis, and septic shock in second week of illness due to inflammatory cytokines.
Lab findings reveal lymphopenia, elevated transaminases, CRP, LDH, D-dimer, serum Ferritin, and Troponin-T with
most common imaging finding being bilateral peripheral lower lung zone ground glass opacities on HRCT chest. RT-
PCR of nasopharyngeal or oropharyngeal swab confirms the diagnosis. There is no magic bullet yet to treat COVID-19
with available options of antivirals (Remdesivir) and immunomodulators (Dexamethasone and Tocilizumab). Even with
effective vaccine stringent measures like social distancing, mask wearing, and hand hygiene are our only defense against
this infection. Effective governance and efficient health sector alone can help combat the pandemic by dispersing the facts
and curbing the myths.
Introduction etiology emerged from the local seafood market in Wuhan,
capital of Hubei province in China and heralded a global
Twenty-first century saw the advent of several infectious
pandemic of zoonotic origin engulfing most countries
diseases that wreaked havoc on human civilization leading
WHO to generate a list of blue print priority1 diseases of the world except the Antarctica continent. The novel
including a disease “X” with a pandemic potential to be pandemic was christened as Coronavirus disease or
caused by an organism yet unknown (Table 1). COVID-19 caused by the betacorona virus SARS-CoV-2,
Soon enough Disease “X” emerged in late December closely akin to SARS-CoV-1 (2002) and the MERS (2012).
2019, when a bunch of pneumonia cases with unknown The virus was isolated from human respiratory epithelial
COVID-19: An Overview CHAPTER 2 9
exposure) and decline after that.5 Virus is also detected in
TABLE 1 Blueprint priority diseases by WHO
other body fluids such as blood, saliva, semen, and stools
Blueprint Priority Diseases* but role in transmission is unclear.6 The virus after its
Given their potential to cause a public health emergency and the initial emergence in Wuhan, spread rapidly across whole
absence of efficacious drugs, vaccines, or both, there is an urgent
of China and to Italy, Iran, Japan, South Korea, the US, and
need for accelerated research and development for the following
across the globe by means of community transmission
diseases:
zzCrimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF) and super spreading events. It predominantly affects
zzEbola virus disease and Marburg virus disease middle aged adults and elderly and males.7 Though no
zzLassa fever
gender or age group has been spared. Usually respiratory
zzMiddle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus coronavirus outbreaks are seen during winter in northern
zzNipah and Henipaviral diseases hemisphere but in some parts of the world like Thailand
zzRift Valley fever (RVF)
they persist throughout the year, whereas SARS-CoV-2
zzZika
zzDisease X shows no such seasonality.
*From the World Health Organization. Known diseases are listed in Early transmission dynamics revealed the major mode
alphabetical order. of transmission to be large droplet mediated direct person
to person (within ~6 ft distance) as well as through direct
cells and after genomic sequencing was identified as contact with contaminated surfaces. Aerosol (droplets
seventh member of the family betacoronavirus, subfamily of size 20–500 µm) transmission is a major mode of
Orthocoronavirus, quite similar to bat coronaviruses.2 transmission to health care workers in hospital settings.8
This virus has several dynamic facets from causing Airborne and animal to human transmission is yet
asymptomatic to critical life threatening respiratory debatable. SARS-CoV-2 has a median survival of ~1.1–3
manifestations. Our understanding of COVID-19 has ever hours in aerosol and up to 72 hours on inanimate objects.9
been evolving since its emergence. This formidable foe Asymptomatic or pre-symptomatic viral shedding is the
with its contagiousness and virulence abetted by global
major mode of disease transmission since, serial interval
trade and tourism was declared a global pandemic on
(SI) (mean 5.8 days) is shorter than the incubation period
March 11th, 2020, by WHO and continues to be a global
(IP). Infectiousness begins 2.3 days before symptom onset
threat with both cure and prevention not yet distinctly
(pre-symptomatic transmission), peaks 0.7 day before
visible (at the time of writing this chapter). Combating
symptom onset and declines within 7 days.10 Shorter SI
this malevolent virus requires sifting of facts from myths
(SI<IP), higher reproductive numbers (R0: 2.2–2.7 in initial
by means of worldwide available accurate scientific
phase) and secondary attack rate of up to 15%11 make the
information that takes high moral ground and conveys
virus highly contagious and difficult to contain.
research driven narratives.
Pathogenesis
Virology, Epidemiology, and Transmission
SARS-CoV-2 virus enters human respiratory epithelial
SARS-CoV-2 is a positive sense ssRNA enveloped virus
cells through attachment of its spike (S) protein to the
with viral spike(S) peplomers, belonging to the human
h-ACE2, similar to SARS-CoV-1 aided by cellular protease
betacoronavirus family, order Nidovirales, and subgenus
TMPRSS2. This is followed by the initial replicative phase
Sarbecovirus similar to SARS-CoV-1 and MERS but a
different clade.2 The S protein contains the region that and phase of innate immunity in the early phase causing
binds the human-angiotensin converting enzyme 2 influenza like illness with mild symptoms due to direct
receptor ACE-2 (h-ACE2) receptor on respiratory epithelial cytopathic effect of the virus. If no intervention occurs at
cells.3 Phylogenetic analysis4 of the virus revealed two this stage, it leads to phase of adaptive immunity leading
different strains designated as the L type (70%) and S type to massive cytokine release syndrome and complications
(30%). High viral titers are detected in nasopharyngeal like acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and
secretions in the early phase of illness (in first week post multi-organ dysfunction.12