Medical Imaging Physics, Fourth Edition PDF
Preview Medical Imaging Physics, Fourth Edition
MedicalImagingPhysics,FourthEdition,byWilliamR.HendeeandE.RussellRitenour ISBN:0-471-38226-4 Copyright(cid:2)C 2002Wiley-Liss,Inc. P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 MEDICAL IMAGING PHYSICS Fourth Edition i P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 MEDICAL IMAGING PHYSICS Fourth Edition William R. Hendee, Ph.D. Senior Associate Dean and Vice President Dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences Professor and Vice Chair of Radiology Professor of Radiation Oncology, Biophysics, Bioethics Medical College of Wisconsin Professor of Biomedical Engineering Marquette University E. Russell Ritenour, Ph.D. Professor and Chief of Radiology Physics, Medical School Director of Graduate Studies in Biophysical Sciences and Medical Physics, Graduate School University of Minnesota A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION iii P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaper.(cid:3)∞ Copyright(cid:3)C 2002byWiley-Liss,Inc.,NewYork.Allrightsreserved. PublishedsimultaneouslyinCanada. DISCLAIMER Whiletheauthors,editors,andpublisherbelievethatdrugselectionanddosageandthespecification andusageofequipmentanddevices,assetforthinthisbook,areinaccordwithcurrent recommendationsandpracticeatthetimeofpublication,theyacceptnolegalresponsibilityforany errorsoromissionsandmakenowarranty,expressorimplied,withrespecttomaterialcontainedherein. Inviewofongoingresearch,equipmentmodifications,changesingovernmentalregulations,andthe constantflowofinformationrelatingtodrugtherapy,drugreactions,andtheuseofequipmentand devices,thereaderisurgedtoreviewandevaluatetheinformationprovidedinthepackageinsertor instructionsforeachdrug,pieceofequipment,ordevicefor,amongotherthings,anychangesinthe instructionsorindicationofdosageorusageandforaddedwarningsandprecautions. Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformor byanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanningorotherwise,exceptas permittedunderSection107or108ofthe1976UnitedStatesCopyrightAct,withouteithertheprior writtenpermissionofthePublisher,orauthorizationthroughpaymentoftheappropriateper-copyfeeto theCopyrightClearanceCenter,222RosewoodDrive,Danvers,MA01923,(978)750-8400, fax(978)750-4744.RequeststothePublisherforpermissionshouldbeaddressedtothePermissions Department,JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.,605ThirdAvenue,NewYork,NY10158-0012,(212)850-6011, fax(212)850-6008,E-Mail:[email protected]. Fororderingandcustomerserviceinformationpleasecall1-800-CALL-WILEY. LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataisavailable. ISBN0-471-38226-4 PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 iv P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 Ad hoc, ad loc and quid pro quo so little time so much to know. Jeremy Hillary Boob, Ph.D. The Nowhere Man in the Yellow Submarine v P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 CONTENTS IN BRIEF PREFACE xv 19 ULTRASOUNDWAVES 303 PREFACETOTHEFIRSTEDITION xvii 20 ULTRASOUNDTRANSDUCERS 317 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix 21 ULTRASOUNDINSTRUMENTATION 331 1 IMAGINGINMEDICINE 1 22 DOPPLEREFFECT 343 23 FUNDAMENTALSOFMAGNETICRESONANCE 355 2 STRUCTUREOFMATTER 11 24 MAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING 3 RADIOACTIVEDECAY 27 ANDSPECTROSCOPY 367 4 INTERACTIONSOFRADIATION 45 25 MAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING: 5 PRODUCTIONOFXRAYS 69 INSTRUMENTATION,BIOEFFECTS,AND SITEPLANNING 389 6 RADIATIONQUANTITYANDQUALITY 91 26 EXPERIMENTALRADIOBIOLOGY 403 7 INTERACTIONOFXANDγ RAYSINTHEBODY 117 27 HUMANRADIOBIOLOGY 413 8 RADIATIONDETECTORSFORQUANTITATIVE MEASUREMENT 127 28 PROTECTIONFROMEXTERNALSOURCES OFRADIATION 435 9 ACCUMULATIONANDANALYSIS OFNUCLEARDATA 143 29 PROTECTIONFROMINTERNALSOURCES OFRADIATION 455 10 COMPUTERSANDIMAGENETWORKING 161 30 FUTUREDEVELOPMENTSINMEDICALIMAGING 467 11 PROBABILITYANDSTATISTICS 179 APPENDIXI REVIEWOFMATHEMATICS 477 12 INSTRUMENTATIONFORNUCLEARIMAGING 197 APPENDIXII FOURIERTRANSFORM 483 13 RADIOGRAPHY 217 APPENDIXIII MULTIPLESANDPREFIXES 485 14 FLUOROSCOPY 235 APPENDIXIV MASSESINATOMICMASSUNITSFORNEUTRAL 15 COMPUTEDTOMOGRAPHY 251 ATOMSOFSTABLENUCLIDESANDAFEWUNSTABLE 16 INFLUENCESONIMAGEQUALITY 265 NUCLIDES 487 17 ANALYTICDESCRIPTIONOFIMAGEQUALITY 281 ANSWERSTOSELECTEDPROBLEMS 491 18 VISUALPERCEPTION 289 INDEX 495 vii P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 CONTENTS PREFACE xv DECAYEQUATIONSANDHALF-LIFE 35 PREFACETOTHEFIRSTEDITION xvii TRANSIENTEQUILIBRIUM 37 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xix ARTIFICIALPRODUCTIONOFRADIONUCLIDES 39 MATHEMATICS OF NUCLIDE PRODUCTION BY NEUTRON BOMBARDMENT 40 1 IMAGINGINMEDICINE 1 INFORMATIONABOUTRADIOACTIVENUCLIDES 41 OBJECTIVES 2 PROBLEMS 41 INTRODUCTION 2 SUMMARY 42 CONCLUSIONS 9 REFERENCES 43 REFERENCES 9 4 INTERACTIONSOFRADIATION 45 2 STRUCTUREOFMATTER 11 OBJECTIVES 46 OBJECTIVES 12 CHARACTERISTICSOFINTERACTIONS 46 THEATOM 12 DIRECTLYIONIZINGRADIATION 46 SOLIDS 17 INTERACTIONSOFELECTRONS 48 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY 18 INTERACTIONSOFHEAVY,CHARGEDPARTICLES 50 THENUCLEUS 19 INDIRECTLYIONIZINGRADIATION 50 NUCLEARFISSIONANDFUSION 21 INTERACTIONSOFNEUTRONS 50 NUCLEARSPINANDNUCLEARMAGNETICMOMENTS 22 ATTENUATIONOFXANDγ RADIATION 51 NUCLEARNOMENCLATURE 23 NONIONIZINGRADIATION 64 PROBLEMS 23 INTERACTIONSOFNONIONIZINGELECTROMAGNETIC SUMMARY 24 RADIATION 66 REFERENCES 25 PROBLEMS 67 SUMMARY 67 3 RADIOACTIVEDECAY 27 REFERENCES 68 OBJECTIVES 28 5 PRODUCTIONOFXRAYS 69 NUCLEARSTABILITYANDDECAY 28 ALPHADECAY 29 OBJECTIVES 70 DECAYSCHEMES 29 INTRODUCTION 70 BETADECAY 30 CONVENTIONALX-RAYTUBES 70 ISOMERICTRANSITIONS 33 ELECTRONSOURCE 70 MATHEMATICSOFRADIOACTIVEDECAY 33 TUBEVOLTAGEANDVOLTAGEWAVEFORMS 71 ix P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 ❘ x CONTENTS RELATIONSHIPBETWEENFILAMENTCURRENTANDTUBE SUMMARY 125 CURRENT 73 REFERENCES 125 EMISSIONSPECTRA 73 FILTRATION 74 8 RADIATIONDETECTORSFORQUANTITATIVE TUBEVACUUM 79 MEASUREMENT 127 ENVELOPEANDHOUSING 79 OBJECTIVES 128 SPECIAL-PURPOSEX-RAYTUBES 81 IONIZATIONCHAMBERS 128 RATINGSFORX-RAYTUBES 82 PROPORTIONALCOUNTERS 131 PROBLEMS 88 GEIGER–MU¨LLERTUBES 132 SUMMARY 88 SOLIDSCINTILLATIONDETECTORS 134 REFERENCES 89 LIQUIDSCINTILLATIONDETECTORS 136 6 RADIATIONQUANTITYANDQUALITY 91 SEMICONDUCTORRADIATIONDETECTORS 138 PROBLEMS 140 OBJECTIVES 92 SUMMARY 140 INTENSITY 92 REFERENCES 141 TRADITIONALVERSUSSYSTE`MEINTERNATIONAL UNITS 94 9 ACCUMULATIONANDANALYSIS RADIATIONEXPOSURE 95 OFNUCLEARDATA 143 UNITSOFRADIATIONDOSE 98 OBJECTIVES 144 DOSEEQUIVALENT 100 INTRODUCTION 144 MEASUREMENTOFRADIATIONDOSE 102 COUNTINGSYSTEMS 144 HALF-VALUELAYER 111 DETERMINATEERRORSINRADIOACTIVITY VARIATIONINQUALITYACROSSANX-RAYBEAM 112 MEASUREMENTS 149 SPECTRALDISTRIBUTIONOFANX-RAYBEAM 113 GAMMA-RAYSPECTROMETRY 152 PROBLEMS 113 PULSEHEIGHTSPECTRA 152 SUMMARY 114 PHOTOPEAKCOUNTING 156 REFERENCES 115 RADIOACTIVEAGENTSFORCLINICALSTUDIES 157 PROBLEMS 158 7 INTERACTIONOFXANDγ RAYS INTHEBODY 117 SUMMARY 159 REFERENCES 160 OBJECTIVES 118 INTRODUCTION 118 10 COMPUTERSANDIMAGENETWORKING 161 FFACTOR 118 ATTENUATIONOFXANDγ RAYS OBJECTIVES 162 INTISSUE 119 HISTORY 162 DOSETOSOFTTISSUEBEYONDBONE 121 MACHINEREPRESENTATIONOFDATA 163 HIGH-VOLTAGERADIOGRAPHY 122 COMPUTERSYSTEMHARDWARE 168 LOW-VOLTAGERADIOGRAPHY 122 SOFTWARE 173 CONTRASTMEDIA 123 NETWORKING 173 PROBLEMS 125 PROBLEMS 177 P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 ❘ xi CONTENTS SUMMARY 177 DIGITALRADIOGRAPHY 230 REFERENCES 178 PROBLEMS 233 SUMMARY 234 11 PROBABILITYANDSTATISTICS 179 REFERENCES 234 OBJECTIVES 180 14 FLUOROSCOPY 235 INTRODUCTION 180 NATUREOFERROR 180 OBJECTIVES 236 PROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONS 181 FLUOROSCOPYANDIMAGEINTENSIFICATION 236 SIGNALANDNOISE 183 TELEVISIONDISPLAYOFTHEFLUOROSCOPICIMAGE 241 METHODSTODESCRIBEPROBABILITYDISTRIBUTIONS 184 DIGITALFLUOROSCOPY 244 PROPAGATIONOFERROR 188 AUTOMATICBRIGHTNESSCONTROL 245 OTHERMETHODSFORDESCRIBINGPRECISION 190 CINEFLUOROGRAPHY 247 SELECTEDSTATISTICALTESTS 192 PROBLEMS 248 SUMMARY 195 SUMMARY 249 PROBLEMS 195 REFERENCES 249 REFERENCES 195 15 COMPUTEDTOMOGRAPHY 251 12 INSTRUMENTATIONFORNUCLEARIMAGING 197 OBJECTIVES 252 OBJECTIVES 198 INTRODUCTION 252 INTRODUCTION 198 HISTORY 252 PRINCIPLEOFCOMPUTEDTOMOGRAPHICIMAGING 253 MEASUREMENTOFACCUMULATIONANDEXCRETION RATES 198 RECONSTRUCTIONALGORITHMS 254 SINGLE-CRYSTALSCINTILLATIONCAMERA 201 SCANMOTIONS 255 PRINCIPLESOFSCINTILLATIONCAMERAOPERATION 202 X-RAYSOURCES 258 MULTIPLE-CRYSTALSCINTILLATIONCAMERA 209 COLLIMATION 258 SOLID-STATECAMERA 209 X-RAYDETECTORS 258 RECTILINEARSCANNER 210 VIEWINGSYSTEMS 258 EMISSIONCOMPUTEDTOMOGRAPHY 210 PATIENTDOSE 259 PROBLEMS 214 QUALITYCONTROL 260 SUMMARY 215 SUMMARY 262 REFERENCES 215 PROBLEMS 262 REFERENCES 262 13 RADIOGRAPHY 217 16 INFLUENCESONIMAGEQUALITY 265 OBJECTIVES 218 X-RAYFILM 218 OBJECTIVES 266 INTENSIFYINGSCREENS 223 INTRODUCTION 266 RADIOGRAPHICGRIDS 226 UNSHARPNESS 266 MAGNIFICATIONRADIOGRAPHY 229 CONTRAST 270 P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 ❘ xii CONTENTS IMAGENOISE 274 ATTENUATIONOFULTRASOUND 308 IMAGEDISTORTIONANDARTIFACTS 276 REFLECTION 311 SUMMARY 278 REFRACTION 313 PROBLEMS 278 ABSORPTION 314 REFERENCES 279 SUMMARY 315 PROBLEMS 316 17 ANALYTICDESCRIPTIONOFIMAGEQUALITY 281 REFERENCES 316 OBJECTIVES 282 20 ULTRASOUNDTRANSDUCERS 317 INTRODUCTION 282 POINTRESPONSE 282 OBJECTIVES 318 LINERESPONSE 282 INTRODUCTION 318 CONTRASTRESPONSE 283 PIEZOELECTRICEFFECT 318 MODULATIONTRANSFERFUNCTION 284 TRANSDUCERDESIGN 319 QUANTUMLEVELSANDCONVERSIONEFFICIENCIES 286 FREQUENCYRESPONSEOFTRANSDUCERS 320 SUMMARY 286 ULTRASOUNDBEAMS 321 PROBLEMS 287 PROBLEMS 329 REFERENCES 287 SUMMARY 329 REFERENCES 329 18 VISUALPERCEPTION 289 21 ULTRASOUNDINSTRUMENTATION 331 OBJECTIVES 290 INTRODUCTION 290 OBJECTIVES 332 HUMANVISION 292 PRESENTATIONMODES 332 DETECTIONOFVISUALINFORMATION 295 TIMEREQUIREDTOOBTAINIMAGES 333 VISUALACUITY 296 SYSTEMCOMPONENTS 335 CONTRASTDISCRIMINATION 296 SIGNALPROCESSING 335 RECOGNITIONANDINTERPRETATIONOFVISUAL DYNAMICRANGE 337 INFORMATION 298 ULTRASOUNDIMAGEARTIFACTS 338 EXPRESSIONSOFVISUALPERFORMANCE 298 QUALITYCONTROL 338 SUMMARY 300 PROBLEMS 340 PROBLEMS 301 SUMMARY 341 REFERENCES 301 REFERENCES 341 19 ULTRASOUNDWAVES 303 22 DOPPLEREFFECT 343 OBJECTIVES 304 INTRODUCTION 304 OBJECTIVES 344 HISTORY 304 ORIGINOFDOPPLERSHIFT 344 WAVEMOTION 304 LIMITATIONSOFDOPPLERSYSTEMS 351 WAVECHARACTERISTICS 305 PROBLEMS 352 ULTRASOUNDINTENSITY 306 SUMMARY 352 ULTRASOUNDVELOCITY 307 REFERENCES 353 P1:GIG PB130-FM PB130-Hendee March7,2002 11:49 ❘ xiii CONTENTS 23 FUNDAMENTALSOFMAGNETICRESONANCE 355 RADIO-FREQUENCYCOILS 391 ELECTRONICCOMPONENTS 392 OBJECTIVES 356 COMPUTER 393 INTERACTIONOFNUCLEIWITHASTATICMAGNETIC ARTIFACTS 393 FIELD 356 QUALITYASSURANCE 395 ROTATIONANDPRECESSION 356 BIOEFFECTS 395 INTERACTIONOFNUCLEIWITHARADIOFREQUENCYWAVE: NUTATION 357 SITEPLANNING 398 INDUCTIONOFAMAGNETICRESONANCESIGNAL SUMMARY 400 INACOIL 358 REFERENCES 401 QUANTUMMECHANICALINTERPRETATION 359 BULKMAGNETIZATION 360 26 EXPERIMENTALRADIOBIOLOGY 403 RELAXATIONPROCESSES:T1ANDT2 361 OBJECTIVES 404 RELAXATIONTIMES(T1ANDT2)FORBIOLOGIC MATERIALS 363 INTRODUCTION 404 PROBLEMS 364 INTERACTIONSATTHECELLANDTISSUELEVELS 405 SUMMARY 364 CELLSURVIVALSTUDIES 405 REFERENCES 364 MODIFICATIONOFCELLULARRESPONSES 406 ANIMALSTUDIES 409 24 MAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING CONCLUSIONS 411 ANDSPECTROSCOPY 367 REFERENCES 411 OBJECTIVES 368 OVERVIEW:MAGNETICRESONANCEASAPROBE 27 HUMANRADIOBIOLOGY 413 OFTHEBODY 368 PULSESEQUENCES 368 OBJECTIVES 414 STOCHASTICEFFECTSOFRADIATION 414 SPATIAL ENCODING OF MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING SIGNAL 370 NONSTOCHASTICEFFECTSOFRADIATION 414 MOTIONSUPPRESSIONTECHNIQUES 374 DOSIMETRYININDIVIDUALSANDPOPULATIONS 416 CONTRASTAGENTS 376 BACKGROUNDRADIATION 417 TISSUECONTRASTINMAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING 377 HUMANPOPULATIONSTHATHAVEBEENEXPOSED MRANGIOGRAPHY 380 TOUNUSUALLEVELSOFRADIATION 419 SPECTROSCOPY 380 DOSE-EFFECTMODELS 423 CHEMICALSHIFTIMAGING 383 FACTORSTHATINFLUENCEDOSE–EFFECTMODELS 425 PROBLEMS 384 ESTIMATINGRISKSOFRADIATION:BEIRREPORT 426 SUMMARY 384 SOURCESOFINFORMATION 429 REFERENCES 385 SUMMARY 431 REFERENCES 431 25 MAGNETICRESONANCEIMAGING: INSTRUMENTATION,BIOEFFECTS,AND 28 PROTECTIONFROMEXTERNALSOURCES SITEPLANNING 389 OFRADIATION 435 OBJECTIVES 390 OBJECTIVES 436 MAINSYSTEMMAGNET 390 REGULATORYAUTHORITYFORRADIATION GRADIENTMAGNETICFIELDS 391 PROTECTION 437
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