Mechanical Behaviour of Materials: Volume 1: Micro- and Macroscopic Constitutive Behaviour PDF
Preview Mechanical Behaviour of Materials: Volume 1: Micro- and Macroscopic Constitutive Behaviour
Mechanical Behaviour of Materials SOLID MECHANICS ANDITS APPLICATIONS Volume180 SeriesEditors: G.M.L.GLADWELL DepartmentofCivilEngineering UniversityofWaterloo Waterloo,Ontario,CanadaN2L3GI AimsandScopeoftheSeries The fundamental questions arising in mechanics are: Why?, How?, and How much? The aim of this series is to providelucid accountswritten by authoritative researchersgivingvisionandinsightinansweringthesequestionsonthesubjectof mechanicsasitrelatestosolids. The scope of the series covers the entire spectrum of solid mechanics. Thus it includes the foundation of mechanics; variational formulations; computational mechanics;statics,kinematicsanddynamicsofrigidandelasticbodies:vibrations of solids and structures; dynamical systems and chaos; the theories of elasticity, plasticity and viscoelasticity; composite materials; rods, beams, shells and membranes;structuralcontrolandstability;soils,rocksandgeomechanics;fracture; tribology;experimentalmechanics;biomechanicsandmachinedesign. The median level of presentation is the first year graduate student. Some texts aremonographsdefiningthecurrentstateofthefield;othersareaccessibletofinal yearundergraduates;butessentiallytheemphasisisonreadabilityandclarity. Forfurthervolumes: http://www.springer.com/series/6557 Dominique Franc¸ois • Andre´ Pineau • Andre´ Zaoui Mechanical Behaviour of Materials Volume 1: Micro- and Macroscopic Constitutive Behaviour 123 DominiqueFranc¸ois Andre´Pineau E´coleCentraledeParis E´coledesMinesdeParis ruedesEnvierges13 ParisTech 75020Paris CentredesMate´riauxUMRCNRS France B.P.87 91003EvryCedex AcademyofEngineering Andre´Zaoui AvenueF.D.Roosevelt Acade´miedesSciences 75008Paris 23QuaideConti France 75006Paris France AcademyofEngineering AvenueF.D.Roosevelt 75008Paris France This is the second updated edition of the earlier book entitled Mechanical Behaviour of Materials,VolumeI,publishedbyKluwerAcademicPublishersin1998. ISSN0925-0042 ISBN978-94-007-2545-4 e-ISBN978-94-007-2546-1 DOI10.1007/978-94-007-2546-1 SpringerDordrechtHeidelbergLondonNewYork LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2011944979 ©SpringerScience+BusinessMediaB.V.2012 Nopartofthisworkmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorby anymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,microfilming,recordingorotherwise,withoutwritten permissionfromthePublisher,withtheexceptionofanymaterialsuppliedspecificallyforthepurpose ofbeingenteredandexecutedonacomputersystem,forexclusiveusebythepurchaserofthework. Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Foreword Man discovered a long time ago by a succession of trials and errors the way to produce steel and to increase its hardness by quenching. The empirical recipes were more or less kept secret within craft guilds. It is not until 1772 that Rene´- Antoine Ferchault de Re´aumur1 shed some light on the difference in carbon content of cast iron and steel. He thus opened the way, and Alexandre-The´ophile Vandermonde, Gaspard Monge, Claude Louis Berthollet2 after him, to a true scientific understandingof metallurgy,enablingto master transformationsand the effects of metal treatments. Scientific researches following, among which should be emphasised the pioneering works of Henry le Chatelier, of Floris Osmond, of Georges Charpy and of Le´on Guillet, allowed understanding the chemistry of alloys, thelinksbetweenmicrostructureandmechanicalbehaviourandimproving industrialprocesses.Thescienceofmetalsthusfoundedopenedthewaytothewider subjectofmaterialsscience.Inthesamewaythepracticalproblemsofconstruction led, earlier than metallurgy as shown by the interest of Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo Galilei for the strength of materials, scientists like Robert Hooke, Joseph LouisLagrange,LeonhardEuler,AugustinLouisCauchytobuildsolidmechanics as a branch of applied mathematics. For a long time the constitutive equations needed in structural mechanics remained crude idealisations of actual behaviour. The pioneers in this field could correspond equally well with their peers about metallurgy (or alchemy) as about mechanics (or astrology). Later, scientists have become more and more specialised, and there is yet not enough overlap between materialsscienceandsolidmechanics. Astechnicalequipmentofever-greatersophisticationhasbecomeavailable,the riskofcatastrophes,ofascalethatcanaffecttheenvironmentandkillmanypeople, 1Rene´-Antoine Ferchault de Re´aumur (1772) L’art de convertir le fer forge´ en acier et l’art d’adoucirleferfondu;ouDefairedesOuvragesdeferfonduaussifinisquedeferforge´,Michel BrunetParis. 2VandermondeAT,MongeGandBertholletC(1790)Avisauxouvriersenfersurlafabrication del’acier.Comite´desalutpublic. v vi Foreword hasincreased;andsafetyhasbecomeamajorconcern.Aswewritethisforeword, hour after hour we learn that the consequences of the earthquake and tsunami in Japankeepbeingmoreandmoresevere.Economicconsiderationspressforlonger lifetimes and smaller safety factors; these generate strong incentives to use more realisticconstitutiveequationsandbetterfailurecriteriainthecalculations,andthe computernow makes this possible. Materials design has become much more of a practical possibility, and materials can be produced with better and more reliable properties. Allthisshowsthatestablishingrelations,asquantitativeaspossible,betweenthe microstructureofmaterialsandtheirmacroscopicpropertiesisnowadaysessential. Thanks to fruitful cooperation between materials scientists and solid-mechanics specialists, recent research has led to promising achievements in this direction; butthenumberof trainingprogramscoveringbothfields, whichwe consideredto remain low when writing the first edition of this book, tends even to decrease. It wastheawarenessoftheneedforadvancedcoursesherethatledus,some26years ago,tocreateinFrancewhatwascalledaDiploˆmed’E´tudesApprofondies(DEA)– AdvancedStudiesDiploma–withthetitle“Me´caniqueetMate´riaux”–“Mechanics and Materials”. The notes provided for the courses were the root of two books written in French3 concerning mechanical properties of materials. The need was probably greater in France than in English-speaking countries, where the famous book of McClintock and Argon, Mechanical Properties of Materials, was already muchinuse.This,however,waspublishedin1966andsodidnotdealwithrecent developments.This gave us the incentive to embark on writing these books, even though we felt that it was hard to match McClintock and Argon.4 The D.E.A. “Me´canique et mate´riaux” trained some 500 students. It is estimated that about 300 of those then prepared a PhD. They have pursued careers in University and Industry, contributing to continued technical progresses. Unfortunately, for some of those highlypoliticalreasons,the D.E.A. was discontinued.As a consequence, textbooksaboutmechanicsandmaterialsareprobablymorethaneverneeded. In the mean time, Kluwer asked us the permission to translate the books in English. Dr. Jack Howlett was appointed for this thankless work. It gave birth to two new books: “Mechanical behaviour of materials” in the Solid mechanics and its applications series.5 Apparently, they met a certain audience, so that Springer, continuingtheseriesaskedustoprepareanewedition.Whenweagreedtoproceed, weunderestimatedtheamountofrevisionrequired.Nowatlast,wearegladtofinish VolumeI. 3Franc¸ois D, Pineau A and Zaoui A (1991, 1992) Comportement me´canique des mate´riaux. IE´lasticite´etplasticite´.IIViscoplasticite´,endommagement,me´caniquedelarupture,me´canique ducontact.HermesParis. 4Argon AS and Mc Clintock FA (1966) Mechanical behaviour of materials. Addison Wesley, Reading. 5Franc¸oisD,PineauAandZaoui A(1998) Mechanical behaviour ofmaterials.IElasticityand plasticity.IIViscoelasticity,Damage,FractureMechanics,ContactMechanics.Klu¨werAcademic Pub.,Dordrecht. Foreword vii The organisation of this volume follows the main classes of mechanical behaviour: elasticity, elastoplasticity, elastoviscoplasticity and viscoelasticity. Throughout we attempt to describe the physical processes that are responsible for the kinds of behaviour studied, the way in which the constitutive equations can represent the behaviour and how they relate to the microstructures. Revising the book, we improved much the existing material, in particular in modifying the organisation,and we addednewup to date content.Understandingthesubject matterrequiresagoodknowledgeofsolidmechanicsandmaterialsscience;wegive themainelementsofthesefieldsinasetofannexesattheendofthefirstvolumes. Wethoughtinterestingforthereaderstogiveasfootnotessomeinformationabout themanyscientistswhosenamesareattachedtotheoriesandformulaeandwhose memoriesmustbecelebrated.Wikipediaprovedextremelyhelpfulindoingso. We are now to undertake the revision of the second volume, which will be devotedtofracturemechanicsanddamageaswellaselementsofcontactmechanics, frictionandwear.Wehaverealisedthatexercisestoillustratethevariouschapters, and case studies also, would occupy too much space to be included in each book andthusthiswillneedathirdvolume.Now,eachvolumewillbeself-sustained. Whilstthepresentbook,aswellasthefollowingones,isaddressedprimarilyto graduatestudents, partof it could possibly be used in undergraduatecourses; and wehopethatpractisingengineersandscientistswillfindtheinformationitconveys useful.WehopealsothatEnglish-speakingreaderswillbeinterestedintheaspects ofFrenchculture,andmoreparticularlyoftheFrenchschoolofmicromechanicsof materials,whichourtreatmentwillundoubtedlydisplay. The authors are very grateful to all their colleagues, in particular those who participated in the DEA “Me´canique et Mate´riaux”, for their contributions and encouragements.Wewishtothankallthosepeoplewhohaveprovidedphotographs to illustrate the book. We also thank Professor Gladwell of the University of Waterloo, Canada, for including it in the series of which he is responsible. In the courseoftheoriginaltranslationthefrequentquestionsandsuggestionsofDr.Jack Howlett helped to improve many paragraphs significantly. We found cooperation withhimverystimulatingandwethankhimforhisexcellentwork.NathalieJacobs, ofSpringer,followedourworkandkepthelpingandencouragingusinanswering our many questions. Thanks to her are extended to all the people who took great careineditingabookofthebestpossiblequality. We are particularly indebted to Professor Georges Cailletaud (E´cole nationale supe´rieure des mines de Paris) who contributed greatly to Chap. 4 about vis- coplasticity, and to Professor Jacques Verdu (Arts et Me´tiers ParisTech) who not only wrote the part devoted to polymers in Chap. 5 about viscoelasticity but also contributedtoAnnex1.Joe¨llePineauandOdileAdamhavebeenextremelyhelpful andtheydeserveourwarmestthanks. Acknowledgements Illustrations in this book are for the most part originals or adapted from various sources. Many figures were provided by courtesy of authors. Let them all be thanked. Permissions for reproduction were solicited for the reproduction of original figures and photographs.Would publishersand authorswho would not have been identifiedsignalittoSpringersoacknowledgmentscouldbegiveninfutureeditions. The authors would like to acknowledge the following publishers for their permissiontouseanumberoffiguresincludedinthetext: -MANEYPublishing Pope SS, Ezz DP (1984) Critical resolved shear stress for Ni3Al. Int Mater Rev 29:136–167–(Figure13)forFig.3.58 Gourgues-LorenzonAF(2007)Applicationofelectronbackscatterdiffractiontothe studyofphasetransformations.IntMaterRev52:65–128–(Figures1&13)for Fig.1.21a,b Flower HM, Gregson PJ (1987) Solid state phase transformations in aluminium alloyscontaininglithium.MaterSciTechnol3:81–90–(Figures3&8)forFigs. 1.43and1.45 GregsonPJ,DinsdaleK,HarrisSJ,NobleB(1987)Evolutionofmicrostructurein Al-Li-Zn-Mg-Cualloys.MaterSciTechnol3:7–13–(Figure4a)forFig.1.44 -SPRINGERNetherlands Cozar R, Pineau A (1973) Morphology of ”0 and ”00 precipitates and thermal stability of Inconel 718 type alloys. Met Trans 4:47–59 – (Figure 4) for Fig.1.27a -TAYLOR&FRANCIS ForemanAJE, MakinMJ(1966)Dislocationmovementthroughrandomarraysof obstacles.PhilosMag14:911–924–(Figures1,3,&5)forFigs.3.95a,b ix x Acknowledgements CampbellJD,FergusonWG(1970)Thetemperatureandstrainratedependenceof the shear strength of mild steel. Philos Mag 21:63–82– (Figures 5 & 11a) for Fig.4.24 -ELSEVIER MillerMK(2001)Contributionsofatomprobetomographytotheunderstandingof nickelbasedsuperalloys.Micron32:757–764–(Figure11)forFig.1.27b Clavel M, Pineau A (1982)Fatigue behaviour of two nickel base alloys II. Mater SciEng55:173–180–(Figures4&5a)forFigs.1.54and1.55 -IOPPublishing Verdier M, Fivel M, Groma I (1998) Mesoscopic scale simulation of dislocation dynamicsinfccmetals.ModelSimulMaterSciEng6:755–770–(Figure13)for Fig.3.63 -TRANSTECHPublications PolakJ,ManJ,ObrtlikK(2005)Atomicforcemicroscopystudyoftheearlyfatigue damage. Mater Sci Forum 482:45–50. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/MSF. 482.45–(Figures1&3)forFigs.1.25a,b -WILEY&Sons WillemsB,NistorLCetal(2005)Strainmappingarounddislocationsindiamond andcBN.PhysStatusSolidiA202:2224–2228.doi:10.1002/pssa.200561923– (Figure3)forFig.3.41 Motoyashiki Y, Bruckner-Foit A, Sugeta A (2007) Investigation of small crack behaviour under cyclic loading. Fatigue Fract Eng Mater Struct 30:556–564 – (Figure8)forFig.1.17
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